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This article or section is a work in progress. The information below may be incomplete, outdated, or subject to change.
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The Meckelnish language is an official language of the United Kingdom of Meckelnburgh and the constituent states of Meckelnburgh and Branniboria, where it is spoken second to Istvanistani by a majority of the population. Meckelnish is a Crando-Batavian language, with heavy influences of Alexandrian, another national language of Meckelnburgh.
Phonology
Consonants
|
|
Labial
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Dental
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Alveolar
|
Post-
alveolar
|
Palatal
|
Velar
|
Glottal
|
| Nasal
|
m
|
|
n
|
|
|
|
|
| Plosive
|
p
|
b
|
|
|
t
|
d
|
|
|
k
|
g
|
|
| Fricative
|
f
|
v
|
θ
|
ð
|
s
|
z
|
ʃ
|
(ʒ)
|
ç
|
x
|
h
|
(ɦ)
|
| Approximant
|
|
|
l
|
|
j
|
w
|
|
| Rhotic
|
|
|
ɹ
|
|
|
|
|
Monophthongs
|
|
Front
|
Central
|
Back
|
| unrounded
|
rounded
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| oral
|
nasal
|
oral
|
nasal
|
| Close
|
i
|
|
y
|
|
u
|
|
| Near-close
|
ɪ
|
|
(ʏ)
|
|
|
|
| Mid
|
e̞
|
(ɛ̃)
|
|
(ə)
|
o
|
(ɔ̃)
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| Open
|
a
|
(ã)
|
|
|
ɑ
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|
Diphthongs
|
|
Fronting
|
Backing
|
| Close
|
ui̯
|
|
| Close-mid
|
ei̯
|
ou̯
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| Open-mid
|
ɔi̯
|
ɛu̯
|
| Open
|
ai̯
|
au̯
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Consonants (extended)[A]
|
|
Labial
|
Dental
|
Alveolar
|
Post-
alveolar
|
Palatal
|
Velar
|
Uvular
|
Glottal
|
| Nasal
|
m
|
|
n
|
|
(ɲ)
|
(ŋ)
|
|
|
| Plosive
|
p
|
b
|
|
t
|
d
|
|
|
k
|
g
|
|
|
| Aff.
|
sibilant
|
|
|
|
(t͡ʃ)
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(d͡ʒ)
|
[(t͡ɕ)]
|
[(d͡ʑ)]
|
|
|
|
| nonsibilant
|
|
|
|
|
(c͡ç)
|
(ɟ͡ʝ)
|
|
|
|
| Fricative
|
f
|
v
|
θ
|
ð
|
s
|
z
|
ʃ
|
(ʒ)
|
ç
|
[(ʝ)]
|
x
|
[ɣ]
|
(ʁ)
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h
|
(ɦ)
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| Appx.
|
central
|
|
|
ɹ
|
|
j
|
|
|
|
| lateral
|
|
(ɫ)
|
l
|
|
(ʎ)
|
|
|
|
| labial
|
|
|
|
|
(ɥ)
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(ʍ)
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w
|
|
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- ^ A Sounds marked by (…) are non-phonemic, allophonic or marginal. Sounds marked by […] are
historical.
H-realization
| Voiceless
|
Voiced
|
| sound
|
/h/
|
sound
|
/h/
|
| /i/, /j/
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/ç/
|
/u/
|
(/ʁ/)
|
| /ɪ/
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/ç̠/
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/o/
|
(/ɦ̹/)
|
| /e/
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/ç̞/
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| /ə/
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/h̝̠/
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| /e̞/
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/h̝/
|
|
| /ɛ/, /a/
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/h/
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/ɑ/
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(/ɦ/)
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Syllables
Basic structure: (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C). Only one vowel or diphthong per nucleus.
Consonants
Yod insertion
| Target vowel
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Trigger
|
Constraints
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Syllable
|
Example
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Notes
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| /uː/, /yː/, /y/
|
—
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Stressed syllables
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Onset
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*/huːs/ → /hjuːs/
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no palatalization, only used in and limited to Old Meckelnish, not Early Modern or Modern
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| /y/, /ʏ/
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Non-lab. or pal. consonants
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Stressed syllables
|
Onset
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*/fyɹt/ → /fjyɹt/
|
—
|
| —
|
—
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Onset (word-initial)
|
*/yt.ãn/ → /jyt.ãn/
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—
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| /u/
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Pal. non-approximants
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Stressed syllables
|
Onset
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*/bat.u/ → /bat͡ʃ.ju/
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with palatalization, if required
|
| —
|
Stressed syllables
|
Onset (word-initial)
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*/ut.ãn/ → /jut.ãn/
|
—
|
| /ç/
|
—
|
Onset
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*/çus/ → /çjus/
|
|
| any
|
—
|
Bare, stressed syllables
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Onset
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*/bʏn'ɑ/ → /bʏɲ'jɑ/
|
—
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Sound mutations
Palatalization and postalveolarization
|
|
Postalveolar
|
Palatal
|
| Nasal
|
|
n → (ɲ)
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|
| Affricative
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t → (t͡ʃ)
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d → (d͡ʒ)
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k → (c͡ç)
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g → (ɟ͡ʝ)
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| Fricative
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s → ʃ
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z → (ʒ)
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x → ç
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h → ç
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| Approx.
|
lateral
|
|
l → (ʎ) / lʲ
|
|
| labial
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w → (ɥ) / wʲ
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Aspiration
|
|
Labial
|
Alveolar
|
Velar
|
| Plosive
|
pʰ
|
tʰ
|
kʰ
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Labialization
|
|
Velar
|
| Plosive
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kʷ
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gʷ
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| Fricative
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xʷ
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| Approximant
|
lʷ / (ɫʷ)
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| Rhotic
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ɹʷ
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Articulatory mutations process[C]
| Target sound
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Trigger
|
Mutation
|
Syllable
|
Example
|
Notes
|
| any vowel
|
/ɹ/ or /l/ + consonant (lab.), or consonant (lab.) + (/ɹ/ or /l/), in clusters
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Labialization
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Thoughout
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*[gɹuɫ] → [gʷɹʷuɫʷ]
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labialization moves through liquids, general rule
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| /s/ + plosive (voiceless), in clusters
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Palatalization blocking
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Onset
|
/skjup/ → /skjup/
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controls over all other palatalization rules
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| /ç/
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Thoughout
|
/çjup/ → /çjup/
|
—
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| Consonants (if not palatalized, voiceless plosives, /p/, /t/, /k/)
|
Aspiration
|
Onset (aside verb)
|
*[tau̯n] → [tʰau̯n]
|
—
|
| /i/
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/l/ (onset)
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Palatalization
|
Onset
|
*/lik/ → /ʎik/
|
—
|
| Approximants (triggered in following syllable, /l/ and /w/)
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Transitional palatalization
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Coda (trans syllabic)
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*[ke̞l.in] → [ke̞lʲ.in]
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/lʲ/ and /wʲ/ used
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| /i/ (before)
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Approximants and rhotics (/l/, (/ɫ/), /ɹ/)
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Labialization
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Coda
|
*[θilt] → [θilʷt]
|
—
|
| /y/, /ʏ/
|
Fricatives (post-palatal, /ç/, /h/, (/ɦ/))
|
Deletion
|
Onset
|
*/hyt/ → /yt/
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apply vowel sequence resolution
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| Plosives, nasals and approximants (palatalizing) and fricatives (/s/, /z/, /x/)
|
Palatalization
|
Coda (trans syllabic), onset
|
*/lyɹl/ → /ʎyɹl/
|
—
|
| /u/
|
Consonants (labializing, voiced, /g/, /l/, /ɹ/)
|
Labialization
|
Onset
|
*[gʷun] → [gʷun]
|
(/ɫ/) inapplicable in onsent
|
| /u/ (before)
|
Approximants and rhotics (/l/, (/ɫ/), /ɹ/)
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Coda (trans syllabic), onset
|
*[fjuɹ.la] → [fjuɹʷ.la]
|
—
|
| /j/
|
Rhotics (/ɹ/)
|
Deletion
|
Onset
|
*/ɹjut/ → /jut/
|
apply vowel sequence resolution
|
| Consonants (palatalizing, /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /n/, /k/, /g/, /x/, /l/, /w/, /h/)
|
Palatalization
|
Coda (trans syllabic), onset
|
*/ðɑd.jo/→ /ðɑd͡ʒ.jo/
|
—
|
| /ɹ/
|
Fricatives (post-palatal, /ç/, /x/, /h/, (/ɦ/)), approximants (/l/, /w/), nasals (/n/)
|
Deletion
|
Onset
|
*/çɹip/ → /ɹip/
|
apply vowel sequence resolution
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| Fricatives and plosives (alveolar, /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/)
|
Post-alveolarization
|
Coda (trans syllabic), onset
|
*/zɹãn/ → /ʒɹãn/
|
—
|
| /w/
|
Approximants and rhotics (/l/, /ɹ/)
|
Deletion
|
Onset
|
*/ɹwɪd/ → /wɪd/
|
before phonemic /w/
|
| Fricatives and plosives (velar, /k/, /g/, /x/)
|
Labialization
|
Onset
|
*[gwis] → [gʷwis]
|
—
|
- ^ C The chart only references sounds that can undergo a mutation, as shown in the above tables, and does not explicitly exclude all non-mutating sounds.
Intervocalic
Intervocalic phonotactics
| Rule
|
Outcome
|
Notes
|
| /ç/ resolution
|
*/ç/ → /j/
|
—
|
| Fricative (glottal) deletion
|
*/h/ → ∅, *(/ɦ/) → ∅
|
apply vowel sequence resolution
|
| Fricative (velar) fortition
|
*/x/ → /k/
|
—
|
| Fricative and affricate voicing
|
e.g. */f/ → /v/, */θ/ → /ð/, (/t͡ʃ/) → (/d͡ʒ/)
|
no intervocalic /x/, /ç/, /h/, (/ɦ/), apply vowel sequence resolution, secondary to other intervocalic rules
|
| Germinate simplification
|
e.g. */p.p/ → /p/, /s.s/ → /s/, /n.n/ → /n/
|
—
|
| /w/ stabilization
|
e.g. /t.ʍ/, /s.ʍ/, */g.ʍ/ → /g.w/, */ð.ʍ/ → /ð.w/
|
—
|
| /ɫ/ stabilization
|
e.g. /(ɫ).C/ → /l.C/, /(ɫ).V/ → /l.V/
|
—
|
Onset clusters
C₁- syllable onsets
| Pattern
|
Allowed
|
Notes
|
| Stops
|
/p/, /t/, /k/, /b/, /d/, /g/
|
—
|
| Fricatives (pre-palatal)
|
/f/, /v/, /s/, /z/, /θ/, /ð/, /ʃ/, (/ʒ/), /x/
|
—
|
| Fricatives (palatal-glottal)
|
e.g. */çu/ → /çju/, *[ho] → [ɦ̹o], see note
|
/çu/ subject to yod insertion, other syllable-onset /ç/, /h/, (/ɦ/) resolved as /h/ via H-allophone series
|
| Nasals
|
/m/ and /n/
|
—
|
| Approximants
|
/ɹ/, /l/, /w/, /j/
|
—
|
| /w/ + /i/ or /ɪ/
|
*/w/ → (/ʍ/)
|
devoices, subservient to /w/ rules in other clusters
|
C₁C₂- and C₁C₂C₃- syllable onsets
| Pattern
|
Allowed
|
Notes
|
| Stop + approximant
|
/pl/, /pɹ/, /bl/, /bɹ/, /tɹ/, /dɹ/, /kl/, /kɹ/, /gl/, /gɹ/, /tw/, /dw/, /kw/, /gw/
|
no /tl/, /dl/, /pw/, /bw/
|
| Fricative + liquid
|
/fl/, /vl/
|
labials only
|
| /s/ or /ʃ/ + stops (voiceless)
|
/sp/, /st/, /sk/, /ʃt/
|
no /ʃp/ or /ʃk/
|
| /s/ + nasals
|
/sn/, /sm/
|
—
|
| /s/ + approximants
|
/sw/, /sl/
|
no /sj/ or /sɹ/, /sw/ not devoiced
|
| /s/ + stops (voiceless) + liquids
|
/spl/, /spɹ/, /stɹ/, /skɹ/
|
no /stl/ or /skl/
|
| /ʃ/ + rhotics
|
/ʃɹ/
|
—
|
Coda clusters
-C₁ syllable codas
| Pattern
|
Allowed
|
Notes
|
| Stops
|
/p/, /t/, /k/, /b/, /d/, /g/
|
—
|
| Fricatives
|
/f/, /v/, /s/, /z/, /x/, /θ/, /ð/, /ʃ/, (/ʒ/)
|
no /ç/, /h/ or (/ɦ/) word-final, applies in all other rules
|
| Nasals
|
/m/ and /n/
|
/m/ and /n/ nasalize vowel (e.g. */en/ → /ɛ̃n/)
|
| Liquids
|
/ɹ/ and */l/ → (/ɫ/)
|
/l/ velarizes to (/ɫ/)
|
| Approximants
|
*/w/ → /u/
|
/w/ voices to /u/, no /j/
|
-C₁C₂C₃ syllable codas
| Pattern
|
Allowed
|
Notes
|
| Nasal + stop + /s/ or /z/
|
e.g. /mps/, */nks/ → /(ŋ)ks/, */nds/ → /ndz/, */ngs/ → /(ŋ)gz/
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with /m/ and /n/ + stop restrictions, /n/ substitutes, assimilation in */(ŋ)gz/, /s/-/z/ voicing in -C₁C₂ codas
|
| Nasal + stop + /t/
|
/mpt/, */nkt/ → /ŋkt/
|
voiceless only, /n/ substitutes
|
| Liquid + stop + /s/ or /z/
|
e.g. /lps/, */lbs/ → /lbz/, /ɹks/, */ɹds/ → /ɹdz/
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with liquids + stop restrictions, /s/-/z/ voicing in -C₁C₂ codas
|
| Liquid + stop + /t/
|
/lpt/, /ɹpt/, /lkt/, /ɹkt/
|
voiceless only
|
| Stop + stop (alveolar) + /s/ or /z/
|
/pts/, /kts/, */bdz/ → /bz/, */gdz/ → /gz/
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voiced assimilate, /s/-/z/ voicing in -C₁C₂ codas
|
| Liquid + /f/ or /v/ + /s/ or /z/
|
/lvz/, /ɹvz/, */lfs/ → /lvz/, */ɹfs/ → /ɹvz/
|
fricative and /s/ voices, labial only, with liquid + fricative restrictions
|
| Fricative + /f/ or /v/ + /s/ or /z/
|
/fts/, */vds/ → /vz/
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voiced assimilate, /s/-/z/ voicing in -C₁C₂ codas
|
| Liquid + nasal + /s/ or /z/
|
/lmz/, */lms/ → /lmz/
|
/s/-/z/ voicing in -C₁C₂ codas
|
| Rhotic + /l/ + /s/ or /z/
|
/ɹlz/, */ɹls/ → /ɹlz/
|
/s/-/z/ voicing in -C₁C₂ codas
|
-C₁C₂ syllable codas
| Pattern
|
Allowed
|
Notes
|
| Consonants (voiced) + /s/ or /z/
|
e.g. */gs/ → /gz/, */ds/ → /dz/, */ls/ → /lz/, */ws/ → /wz/
|
/s/ voices before voiced consonants, /z/ devoices before voiceless, applies ahead of all other rules, no /js/ or /(ɦ)s/, all others
|
| Consonants (voiceless) + /s/ or /z/
|
e.g. /ts/, /fs/, /xs/, /ks/, /θs/
|
no /hs/ or /çs/, all others
|
| Fricative + stop (alveolar)
|
/ft/, /vd/
|
no /fd/, /vt/
|
| Stop + stop (alveolar)
|
/pt/, /kt/, /bd/, /gd/
|
no /pd/, /kd/, /bt/, /gt/
|
| /s/ + stops
|
/sp/, /st/, /sk/, */sb/ → /sp/, */sd/ → /st/, */sg/ → /sk/
|
devoices
|
| Nasal + fricative (coronal)
|
*/ns/ → /nz/, */ms/ → /mz/, */nʃ/ → /n(t͡ʃ)/, */n(ʒ)/ → /n(d͡ʒ)/
|
voices or affricates, no /mʃ/ or /m(ʒ)/
|
| Nasal + fricative (dental)
|
/nθ/ or /nð/
|
devoices, no /mθ/ or /m
|
| /n/ + stops
|
/nt/, /nd/, */nx/ → /(ŋ)x/, */nk/ → /(ŋ)k/, */ng/ → /(ŋ)g/
|
/n/ substitutes before /k/, /x/, /g/, no labials
|
| /m/ + stops
|
/mp/ and /mb/
|
labials only
|
| /l/ + stops
|
/lb/, /lp/, /lt/, /ld/, /lk/
|
no /lg/
|
| /l/ + fricatives
|
/lf/, /lv/, /lθ/, /lð/, */ls/ → /lz/, /lz/, /lʃ/, /l(ʒ)/, /lx/
|
no /lç/ or /lh/, voicing /z/
|
| /l/ + nasals
|
/lm/, /ln/
|
/lm/ and /ln/ nasalize vowel (e.g. */alm/ → /ãlm/),
|
| Rhotic + consonants
|
e.g. /ɹl/, /ɹv/, /ɹm/, /ɹð/, /ɹt/, */ɹs/ → /ɹz/
|
no /ɹw/, /ɹç/, /ɹj/, all others
|
Vowels
Vowel phonotactics
| Rule
|
Outcome
|
Notes
|
| Stressed syllables
|
Monophthongs (/i/, /ɪ/, /y/, /u/, /e̞/, /o/, /a/, /ɑ/) and diphthongs (/ui̯/, /ei̯/, /ɔi̯/, /ou̯/, /ai̯/, /au̯/)
|
—
|
| Unstressed closed syllables laxing
|
*/i/ → /ɪ/, */y/ → (/ʏ/)
|
—
|
| Unstressed reduction to /ə/
|
e.g. */a/ → (/ə/), */e̞/ → (/ə/), */o/ → (/ə/)
|
occurs within an era, separate from deletion
|
| /ə/ end open syllable deletion
|
e.g. */VC.(ə)/ → /VC/
|
occurs within an era, separate from reduction
|
| /ə/ medial open syllable deletion
|
e.g. */C(ə).CV/ → /CCV/
|
if remaining cluster is lawful, occurs within an era, separate from reduction
|
| /ə/ dropping in diphthongs
|
e.g. */(ə)u/ → /u/, */(ə)i/ → /i/, */(ə)o/ → /o/
|
—
|
| Nasalizing before nasal coda
|
e.g. */on/ → /(ɔ̃)n/, */e̞m/ → /(ɛ̃)m/, */ɑlm/ → /(ã)lm/
|
triggered by /n/, /m/, /lm/ codas
|
| Vowel (not close front) + /j/ or /i/
|
/ai̯/, /ei̯/, /ɔi̯/, /ui̯/
|
diphthongize
|
| Vowel (mid front or back and open back) + /u/ or /w/
|
/au̯/, /ɛu̯/, /ou̯/
|
diphthongize
|
Vowel sequence resolution
| V₁
|
V₂
|
Notes
|
| /i/
|
/ɪ/
|
/y/
|
/ʏ/
|
/u/
|
/e̞/
|
/o/
|
/a/
|
/ɑ/
|
/ə/
|
| /i/
|
/i/
|
/j/ + V
|
/i/
|
/j/ + V
|
/i/
|
implicates palatalization
|
| /ɪ/
|
/i/
|
/ɪ/
|
/y/
|
/ɪ/
|
/u/
|
/e̞/
|
/o/
|
/a/
|
/ɑ/
|
/ɪ/
|
stable vowel priority
|
| /y/
|
/y/
|
/w/ + V
|
/y/
|
implicates labialization
|
| /ʏ/
|
/i/
|
/ɪ/
|
/y/
|
/ʏ/
|
/u/
|
/e̞/
|
/o/
|
/a/
|
/ɑ/
|
/ʏ/
|
stable vowel priority
|
| /u/
|
/ui̯/
|
/u/
|
/ui̯/
|
/u/
|
/w/ + V
|
/u/
|
implicates labialization
|
| /e̞/
|
/ei̯/
|
/e̞/
|
/ɛu̯/
|
/e̞/
|
/o/
|
/a/
|
/ɑ/
|
/e̞/
|
/ɑ/ priority, more sonorant
|
| /o/
|
/ɔi̯/
|
/o/
|
/ou̯/
|
/o/
|
/w/ + V
|
/o/
|
implicates labialization
|
| /a/
|
/ai̯/
|
/a/
|
/au̯/
|
/a/
|
/au̯/
|
/a/
|
/ɑ/
|
/a/
|
/ɑ/ priority, more sonorant
|
| /ɑ/
|
/ai̯/
|
/ɑ/
|
/ɑ/
|
/ɑ/
|
/ɑ/
|
/ɑ/ priority, more sonorant
|
| /ə/
|
V
|
/ə/
|
/ə/ too weak, deletion
|
Orthography
| Upper case
|
A
|
B
|
Ƀ
|
C
|
D
|
E
|
F
|
G
|
H
|
I
|
J
|
K
|
L
|
M
|
N
|
O
|
P
|
R
|
S
|
T
|
U
|
Ü
|
W
|
IJ
|
Z
|
Å
|
Þ
|
Ð
|
Æ[B]
|
| Lower case
|
a
|
b
|
ƀ
|
c
|
d
|
e
|
f
|
g
|
h
|
i
|
j
|
k
|
l
|
m
|
n
|
o
|
p
|
r
|
s
|
t
|
u
|
ü
|
w
|
ij
|
z
|
å
|
þ
|
ð
|
æ
|
| Name
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Old name
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
- ^ B Archaic letter for spelling of words, mostly proper nouns, retaining /ɛ/.
Consonants
| Spelling
|
Notes
|
| b
|
/b/
|
| ƀ
|
/v/
|
| cg
|
(/d͡ʒ/)
|
| ch
|
/x/
|
| d
|
/d/
|
| dsch
|
(/d͡ʒ/) (word-final)
|
| dj
|
(/d͡ʒ/) (word-initial)
|
| f
|
/f/
|
| g
|
/g/
|
| gj
|
(/ɟ͡ʝ/)
|
| gge
|
(/ɟ͡ʝ/) (word-final)
|
| h
|
/h/, (/ɦ/)
|
| hj
|
/ç/, /çj/
|
| hl
|
(/ɫ/)
|
| hw
|
/ʍ/
|
| j
|
/j/
|
| k
|
/k/
|
| kj
|
(/c͡ç/)
|
| kke
|
(/c͡ç/) (word-final)
|
| l
|
/l/
|
| lj
|
(/ʎ/)
|
| m
|
/m/
|
| n
|
/n/
|
| ng
|
(/ŋ/)
|
| nj
|
(/ɲ/)
|
| p
|
/p/
|
| r
|
/ɹ/
|
| s
|
/s/
|
| sc
|
/ʃ/
|
| sch
|
/ʃ/ (word-final)
|
| sj
|
/ʃ/ (word-initial)
|
| t
|
/t/
|
| tsch
|
(/t͡ʃ/) (word-final)
|
| tj
|
(/t͡ʃ/) (word-initial)
|
| tsj
|
(/t͡ʃ/)
|
| w
|
/w/
|
| wj
|
(/ɥ/)
|
| wr
|
[ɹʷ] (word-initial)
|
| z
|
/z/
|
| zj
|
(/ʒ/)
|
| zsch
|
(/ʒ/) (word-final)
|
| þ
|
/θ/
|
| ð
|
/ð/
|
Vowels and diphthongs
| Spelling
|
Notes
|
| a
|
/a/, (/ə/) (for /ə/ reduced from /a/)
|
| â
|
(/ã/)
|
| ai
|
/ai̯/
|
| au
|
/au̯/
|
| e
|
/e̞/, (/ə/) (for /ə/ reduced from /e̞/)
|
| ê
|
(/ɛ̃/)
|
| ei
|
/ei̯/
|
| eu
|
/ɛu̯/
|
| i
|
/ɪ/
|
| ij
|
/i/
|
| o
|
/o/, (/ə/) (for /ə/ reduced from /o/)
|
| ô
|
(/ɔ̃/)
|
| oi
|
/ɔi̯/
|
| ou
|
/ou̯/
|
| u
|
/u/
|
| ui
|
/ui̯/
|
| ü
|
/y/, (/ʏ/)
|
| å
|
/ɑ/
|
Diacritics and notation
| Diacritic
|
Example
|
Notes
|
| ◌̂ (circumflex)
|
⟨ô⟩
|
marks nasalized vowel (/o/ → /ɔ̃/)
|
| ◌̊ (ring)
|
⟨å⟩
|
non-productive, used for /ɑ/ (/a/ → /ɑ/)
|
| ◌̈ (diaeresis)
|
⟨ü⟩
|
non-productive, used for /y/ (/u/ → /y/)
|
| ' (apostrophe)
|
⟨'üs⟩
|
contraction or laxing, if against phonotactics (weak vowel stressed, omission of /j/, nasal vowel to /ən/), especially pronouns
|
Archaic uses
| Spelling
|
Notes
|
Timeline
|
| ƀ
|
/β/ (for phoneme)
|
Old era
|
| cj
|
(/ʝ/)
|
Early Modern era
|
| ck
|
/ɣ/
|
Old to Early Modern era
|
| s
|
/s/ (for phoneme)
|
Old era
|
| aa
|
/aː/
|
Old era
|
| e
|
/e/ (for phoneme)
|
Old to Early Modern era
|
| æ
|
/ɛ/
|
Early Modern era
|
| ee
|
/eː/
|
Old era
|
| i
|
/i/
|
Old era
|
| ij
|
/iː/ (for phoneme)
|
Old era
|
| oi
|
/oi̯/ (for phoneme)
|
Early Modern era
|
| oo
|
/oː/
|
Old era
|
| uu
|
/uː/
|
Old era
|
| üü
|
/yː/
|
Old era
|
| åå
|
/ɑː/
|
Old era
|
Grammar
Particles
|
|
Affirm.
|
Neg.
|
| general
|
jå
|
nein
|
| /jɑ/
|
/nei̯n/
|
| formal
|
jeƀahl
|
neint
|
| /jə'vaɫ/
|
/nei̯nt/
|
| informal
|
jau
|
nei
|
| /jau̯/
|
/nei̯/
|
| adverbal
|
ƀahl
|
neit
|
| /vaɫ/
|
/nei̯t/
|
Determiners
Determiners (limited)[]
|
|
Articles
|
Negative[]
|
Demonstratives
|
| definite
|
indefinite
|
| full[]
|
enc.
|
full[]
|
enc.[]
|
proximal[]
|
distal[]
|
| sing.
|
masc.
|
de (dên)
|
d'n
|
eine
|
'ne ('n)
|
geine (geinen)
|
deize (deizen)
|
dei (dein)
|
| /de/ (/dɛ̃n/)
|
/dən/
|
/'ei̯n.ə/
|
/'ən.ə/ (/ən/)
|
/'gei̯n.ə/ (/'gei̯n.ən/)
|
/'dei̯z.ə/ (/'dei̯z.ən/)
|
/dei̯/ (/dei̯n/)
|
| neut.
|
het
|
't
|
'e (ein)
|
'n
|
gei (gein)
|
deis
|
dij (dijn)
|
| /he̞t/
|
/ət/
|
/e̞/ (/ei̯n/)
|
/ən/
|
/'gei̯/ (/'gei̯n/)
|
/dei̯s/
|
/di/ (/din/)
|
| fem.
|
de (dên)
|
d'n
|
ein
|
'n
|
gein
|
dit
|
dåt
|
| /ei̯n/
|
/ən/
|
/dɪt/
|
/dɑt/
|
| plur.
|
einech
|
deis
|
dij (dijn)
|
| /de̞/ (/dɛ̃n/)
|
/dən/
|
/'ei̯n.əx/
|
/'gei̯n/
|
/dei̯s/
|
/di/ (/din/)
|
If the following word begins with either /h/ or a vowel.
While many determiners are used, these are restricted to those that decline irregularly for number and/or gender.
Pronouns
Personal and definite pronouns
|
|
Subject
|
Object
|
Dependent genitive
|
Indep.
genitive
|
Reflexive
|
Relative
|
| masculine
|
fem./plur.
|
neuter
|
| full
|
enc.
|
full
|
enc.
|
full[]
|
enc.[]
|
full
|
enc.
|
full[]
|
enc.
|
full
|
enc.
|
subj.
|
gen.
|
| sing.
|
1st
|
ijch
|
'ch
|
mijch
|
m'ch
|
mijne (mijnen)
|
m'ne (m'n)
|
mijn
|
m'n
|
mij (mijn)
|
m'n
|
[de] mijn
|
mijch
|
m'ch
|
—
|
| /ix/
|
/əx/
|
/mix/
|
/məx/
|
/'min.ə/ (/'min.ən/)
|
/'mən.ə/ (/mən/)
|
/min/
|
/mən/
|
/mi/ (/min/)
|
/mən/
|
/min/
|
/mix/
|
/məx/
|
| 2nd
|
fam.
|
dijch
|
de
|
dijch
|
d'ch
|
dijne (dijnen)
|
d'ne (d'n)
|
dijn
|
d'n
|
dij (dijn)
|
d'n
|
[de] dijn
|
dijch
|
d'ch
|
| /dix/
|
/də/
|
/dix/
|
/dəx/
|
/'din.ə/ (/'din.ən/)
|
/'dən.ə/ (/dən/)
|
/din/
|
/dən/
|
/di/ (/din/)
|
/dən/
|
/din/
|
/dix/
|
/dəx/
|
| polite
|
geir
|
g'r
|
üch
|
üre (üren)
|
ür
|
[dên] ür
|
üch
|
| /gei̯ɹ/
|
/gəɹ/
|
/jych/
|
/'jʏɹ.ə/ (/'jʏɹ.ən/)
|
/jyɹ/
|
/jyɹ/
|
/jyx/
|
| 3rd
|
masc.
|
heir
|
'r
|
hoim
|
'm
|
zijne (zijnen)
|
z'ne (z'n)
|
zijn
|
z'n
|
zijn
|
z'n
|
[de] zijn
|
zijch
|
z'ch
|
dei
|
vei
|
| /hei̯ɹ/
|
/əɹ/
|
/ɦɔi̯m/
|
/əm/
|
/dei̯/
|
| neut.[]
|
het
|
't
|
het
|
't
|
dåt
|
| /he̞t/
|
/ət/
|
/he̞t/
|
/ət/
|
/'zin.ə/ (/'zin.ən/)
|
/'zən.ə/ (/zən/)
|
/zin/
|
/zən/
|
/zin/
|
/zən/
|
/zin/
|
/dɑt/
|
| fem.
|
zij
|
ze
|
hoir
|
'r
|
hoir (hoiren)
|
're ('rn)
|
hoir
|
'r
|
hoir
|
'r
|
[dên] hoir
|
dij
|
| /zi/
|
/zə/
|
/ɦɔi̯ɹ/
|
/həɹ/
|
/'ɦɔi̯ɹ.ə/ (/'ɦɔi̯ɹ.ən/)
|
/'həɹ.ə/ (/həɹn/)
|
/ɦɔi̯ɹ/
|
/həɹ/
|
/ɦɔi̯ɹ/
|
/həɹ/
|
/ɦɔi̯ɹ/
|
/zix/
|
/zəx/
|
/di/
|
| indef.
|
me
|
eige[] (eigen)
|
[dên] eige
|
zalef
|
dei
|
| /me̞/
|
/'ei̯g.ə/ (/'ei̯g.ən/)
|
/'ei̯g.ə/
|
/'zal.əf/
|
/dei̯/
|
/vei̯/
|
| plural
|
1st
|
ƀeir
|
ƀ'r
|
'üs
|
üze (üzen)
|
üs
|
[dên] üs
|
'üs
|
—
|
| /vei̯ɹ/
|
/vəɹ/
|
/ʏs/
|
/'jyz.ə/ (/'jyz.ən/)
|
/jys/
|
/jys/
|
/ʏs/
|
| 2nd
|
geir
|
g'r
|
üch
|
üre (üren)
|
ür
|
[dên] ür
|
üch
|
| /gei̯ɹ/
|
/gəɹ/
|
/jyx/
|
/'jyɹ.ə/ (/'jʏɹ.ən/)
|
/jyɹ/
|
/jyɹ/
|
/jyx/
|
| 3rd
|
zij
|
ze
|
'ün
|
ze
|
üne (ünen)
|
'ün
|
[dên] 'ünt
|
zijch
|
dij
|
vei
|
| /zi/
|
/zə/
|
/ʏn/
|
/zə/
|
| epicene[]
|
dij
|
| /di/
|
/'jʏn.ə/ (/'jʏn.ən/)
|
/ʏn/
|
/ʏnt/
|
/zix/
|
/di/
|
/vei̯/
|
| dummy[]
|
der
|
d'r
|
—
|
| /de̞ɹ/
|
/dəɹ/
|
If the following word begins with either /h/ or a vowel.
The indefinite pronoun "one," with its possessive "eige" meaning variously "one's" or "one's own." Also used as an intensifier of ownership (e.g. "zijn eige" or "his own").
The generic gender-neutral pronoun for either unknown or explicitly ungendered purposes, is grammatically plural.
Also serves as a "dummy" pronoun serving as a subject or object without an explicit reference, also known as "weather it" (i.e. "it is raining").
Unstressed and unspecific dummy form of "there," used abstractly and not in the locative sense (i.e. "there are glaciers in the world" versus "I see glaciers [over] there"). Is grammatically singular.
Indefinite pronouns
|
|
Human
|
Object
|
Place
|
| indefinite
|
ijmes
|
eits
|
oiregs
|
| /'im.əs/
|
/ei̯ts/
|
/'ɔi̯ɹ.əgz/
|
| negative
|
nijmes
|
nijks
|
noiregs
|
| /'nim.əs/
|
/niks/
|
/'nɔi̯ɹ.əgz/
|
| universal
|
ederein
|
åles
|
üƀerauhl
|
| /e̞d.əɹ'ei̯n/
|
/'ɑl.əs/
|
/jʏv.əɹ'au̯ɫ/
|
Interrogative pronouns
|
|
who
|
what
|
which
|
where
|
when
|
why
|
how
|
| nom./acc.
|
ƀei
|
ƀåt
|
ƀåtfjür
|
ƀu
|
ƀijnij
|
ƀurüm[]
|
ƀij
|
| /vei̯/
|
/vɑt/
|
/'vɑt.fjuɹ/
|
/vu/
|
/vi'ni/
|
/vu'ɹym/
|
/vi/
|
| genitive
|
ƀei
|
—
|
| /vei̯/
|
By extension of a base form "ƀu" ("ƀurüm," as literally "what for") used to create other interrogatories (e.g. "ƀumet," as "what with").
Verbs
Irregular verbs
|
|
inf.
|
present
|
past
|
participle
|
supine
|
imperative
|
| singular
|
plural
|
singular
|
plural
|
| 1st
|
2nd
|
3rd
|
1st
|
2nd
|
3rd
|
1st
|
2nd
|
3rd
|
1st
|
2nd
|
3rd
|
past
|
pres.
|
sing.
|
plur.
|
| "be"
|
zein
|
bijn
|
bijs
|
ijs
|
zein
|
zeit
|
zein
|
waur
|
waurs
|
waur
|
waren
|
waurt
|
waren
|
geƀeis
|
zeind
|
—
|
bijs
|
zeit
|
| "have"
|
hobe
|
hob
|
hobs
|
heit
|
hoben
|
hob
|
hoben
|
håd
|
håds
|
håd
|
håden
|
håd
|
håden
|
genhåd
|
hobend
|
hob
|
hob
|
| "become"
|
wjüre
|
wjür
|
wjürs
|
wjürt
|
wjüren
|
wjürt
|
wjüren
|
woirt
|
woirs
|
woirt
|
woirten
|
woirt
|
woirten
|
geƀore
|
wjürend
|
wjür
|
wjürt
|
| "do"
|
djun
|
daun
|
deis
|
deit
|
djun
|
daut
|
djun
|
doig
|
doigs
|
doig
|
dogen
|
doig
|
dogen
|
gedoin
|
—
|
djug
|
daut
|
| "go"
|
gjun
|
gaun
|
geis
|
geit
|
gjun
|
gaut
|
gjun
|
gông
|
gôngs
|
gông
|
gôngen
|
gôngk
|
gôngen
|
gegånge
|
gaund
|
ganenter
|
gånk
|
gaut
|
| "come"
|
kome
|
kôm
|
kums
|
kump
|
komen
|
kômp
|
komen
|
kaum
|
kaums
|
kaum
|
kamen
|
kaump
|
kamen
|
gekoume
|
komend
|
komenter
|
kôm
|
kômp
|
Modal verbs
|
|
inf.
|
present
|
past
|
participle
|
supine
|
imperative
|
| singular
|
plural
|
singular
|
plural
|
| 1st
|
2nd
|
3rd
|
1st
|
2nd
|
3rd
|
1st
|
2nd
|
3rd
|
1st
|
2nd
|
3rd
|
past
|
pres.
|
sing.
|
plur.
|
| "will"
"woud"[]
|
zåle
|
zåhl
|
zåls
|
zåhl
|
zålen
|
zålt
|
zålen
|
zou
|
zous
|
zou
|
zoƀen
|
zout
|
zoƀen
|
—
|
—
|
—
|
| "can"
|
kijne
|
kijn
|
kijns
|
kijnt
|
kijnen
|
kijnt
|
kijnen
|
kos
|
kos
|
kos
|
kosten
|
kos
|
kosten
|
gekos
|
kinend
|
| "may"
|
mage
|
maig
|
maigs
|
maig
|
magen
|
maig
|
magen
|
moch
|
mochs
|
moch
|
mochten
|
moch
|
mochten
|
gemoch
|
magend
|
| "want"
|
wele
|
wehl
|
wels
|
welt
|
welen
|
welt
|
welen
|
wou
|
wous
|
wou
|
woƀen
|
wout
|
woƀen
|
geƀeld
|
—
|
wehl
|
welt
|
| "must"
|
mjute
|
mjut
|
mjus
|
mjut
|
mjuten
|
mjut
|
mjuten
|
mos
|
mos
|
mos
|
mosten
|
mos
|
mosten
|
gemote
|
mjut
|
mjut
|
| "need not"
|
hoƀe
|
hoif
|
hoifs
|
hoif
|
hoƀen
|
hoif
|
hoƀen
|
hoifde
|
hoifdes
|
hoifde
|
hoifden
|
hoifdest
|
hoifden
|
genhoif
|
hovend
|
hoventer
|
hoif
|
hoif
|
Meaning of "would" in the conditional sense when used in the past tense.
Regular verbs
|
|
|
inf.
|
present
|
past
|
participle
|
supine
|
imp.
|
| singular
|
plural
|
singular
|
plural
|
| 1st
|
2nd
|
3rd
|
1st
|
2nd
|
3rd
|
1st
|
2nd
|
3rd
|
1st
|
2nd
|
3rd
|
past[]
|
pres.
|
sing.
|
plur.
|
| I
|
-p, b, t, d, k, g,
f, v, s[], ch[]
|
-e
|
-∅
|
-s
|
-∅
|
-e
|
-∅
|
-e
|
-de
|
-des
|
-de
|
-den
|
-dest
|
-den
|
ge-
|
-end
|
-enter
|
-∅
|
-∅
|
| II
|
-eiC, el[]
|
-t
|
-t
|
ge-, -d
|
-t
|
| III
|
-m
|
-p
|
-p
|
ge-, -p
|
-p
|
| IV
|
-ng (/
|
-k
|
-k
|
ge-, -k
|
-k
|
No additional ge- prefixed if verb root starts with ge or an inseparable prefix.
Verb endings with -e or -en may shorten preceding verb length but not are not strong vowels.
j may be required when intervocalic before suffix
-∅ if the stem ends in an s already
a -t- is added after the -ch and before a suffix beginning with -e
n may be required if ge- goes before a vowel
Stressed root, not necessarily final.
Adverbs
Locative adverbs
|
|
Proximal
|
Distal
|
| static
|
hei
|
dau
|
| /hei̯/
|
/dau̯/
|
| relative
|
ƀu
|
| /vu/
|
| direct.
|
hair
|
håt
|
| /hei̯ɹ/
|
/ɦɑt/
|
Development
Phonetic movement
Consonants
| Old LM
|
Condition →
|
Old MK
|
Condition →
|
Early Mod.
|
Condition →
|
Modern
|
Notes
|
| /b/
|
Stable
|
/b/
|
Stable
|
/b/
|
Stable
|
/b/
|
|
| /β/
|
Stable
|
/β/
|
Word-initial or intervocalic
|
/v/
|
Stable
|
/v/
|
Initial and intervocalic strengthening
|
| Word-final and not after a nasal consonant
|
/f/
|
Stable
|
/f/
|
Final devoicing
|
| After a nasal consonant
|
/b/
|
Stable
|
/b/
|
Post-nasal hardening
|
| /d/
|
Stable
|
/d/
|
Not intervocalic and not palatalizing
|
/d/
|
Stable
|
/d/
|
|
| Not intervocalic and palatalizing
|
(/d͡ʑ/)
|
Stabilization
|
(/d͡ʒ/)
|
Palatalization, affrication → fortition
|
| Intervocalic
|
/ð/
|
Stable
|
/ð/
|
Intervocalic lenition
|
| /f/
|
Not voiced contexts
|
/f/
|
Stable
|
/f/
|
Stable
|
/f/
|
|
| Voiced contexts
|
/β/
|
Destabliziation
|
/v/
|
Stable
|
/v/
|
Lenition → labiodentalization
|
| /g/
|
Not intervocalic and not after long V and not after /ɹ/
|
/g/
|
Not palalatizing
|
/g/
|
Stable
|
/g/
|
Merger
|
| Palalatizing
|
(/g͡ʝ/)
|
Stabilization
|
(/ɟ͡ʝ/)
|
Palatalization, affrication → fortition
|
| Intervocalic or after long V or after /ɹ/
|
(/ɣ/)
|
Not palalatizing
|
/ɣ/
|
Destabliziation
|
/g/
|
Intervocalic, postvocalic lenition → phonemicizing → merger
|
| Palalatizing
|
(/ʝ/)
|
Destabliziation
|
(/ɟ͡ʝ/)
|
Palatalization → affrication, merger
|
| /h/
|
Stable
|
/h/
|
Unspecific sound and not palatalizing
|
/h/
|
Stable
|
/h/
|
H-allophonic realization system complex
|
| H-realization before /i/, (/ɪ/), /j/ or palatalizing
|
/ç/
|
Stable
|
/ç/
|
| H-realization before /ɑ/ or /o/
|
(/ɦ/)
|
Stable
|
(/ɦ/)
|
| H-realiziation before /u/
|
(/ʁ/)
|
Stable
|
(/ʁ/)
|
| /j/
|
Stable
|
/j/
|
Stable
|
/j/
|
Stable
|
/j/
|
|
| /k/
|
Not intervocalic and not after long V
|
/k/
|
Not palatalizing
|
/k/
|
Stable
|
/k/
|
|
| Palatalizing
|
(/k͡ç/)
|
Stabilization
|
(/c͡ç/)
|
Palatalization, affrication → fortition
|
| Intervocalic or after long V
|
/x/
|
Not palatalizing
|
/x/
|
Intervocalic
|
/k/
|
Intervocalic, postvocalic lenition → fortition
|
| /x/
|
Stable
|
Not intervocalic
|
/x/
|
|
| Palatalizing
|
/ç/
|
Stable
|
/ç/
|
Palatalization
|
| /l/
|
Stable
|
/l/
|
Not palatalizing and not word-final
|
/l/
|
Stable
|
/l/
|
|
| Palatalizing and not word-final
|
/lʲ/
|
Full palatalizating
|
(/ʎ/)
|
Palatalization, articulation → sound change
|
| Transitional palatalizing
|
/lʲ/
|
Palatalization
|
| Word-final
|
(/ɫ/)
|
Stable
|
(/ɫ/)
|
Velarization
|
| /m/
|
Stable
|
/m/
|
Stable
|
/m/
|
Stable
|
/m/
|
|
| /n/
|
Unspecific C
|
/n/
|
Not palalatizing
|
/n/
|
Stable
|
/n/
|
|
| Palalatizing
|
(/ɲ/)
|
Stable
|
(/ɲ/)
|
Palatalization
|
| Before /k/, /g/, /x/, (/ɣ/)
|
(/ŋ/)
|
Stable
|
(/ŋ/)
|
Stable
|
(/ŋ/)
|
Velarization
|
| /p/
|
Stable
|
/p/
|
Stable
|
/p/
|
Stable
|
/p/
|
|
| /ɹ/
|
Stable
|
/ɹ/
|
Stable
|
/ɹ/
|
Stable
|
/ɹ/
|
|
| /s/
|
Stable
|
/s/
|
Not palalatizing
|
/s/
|
Stable
|
/s/
|
|
| Palalatizing
|
(/ʃ/)
|
Stable
|
/ʃ/
|
Palatalization → phonemicizing
|
| /z/
|
Stable
|
/z/
|
Not palalatizing
|
/z/
|
Stable
|
/z/
|
|
| Palalatizing
|
(/ʒ/)
|
Stable
|
(/ʒ/)
|
Palatalization
|
| /t/
|
Not intervocalic or not after stressed rounded vowel
|
/t/
|
Not palalatizing
|
/t/
|
Stable
|
/t/
|
|
| Palalatizing
|
(/t͡ɕ/)
|
Stabilization
|
(/t͡ʃ/)
|
Palatalization, affrication → fortition
|
| Intervocalic and after stressed rounded vowel
|
/ð/
|
Stable
|
/ð/
|
Stable
|
/ð/
|
Intervocalic voicing and lenition
|
| /w/
|
Stable
|
/w/
|
Unspecific sound and not palatalizing
|
/w/
|
Stable
|
/w/
|
|
| Before /i/ or (/ɪ/) and not palatalizing
|
(/ʍ/)
|
Stable
|
(/ʍ/)
|
Devoicing
|
| Palalatizing
|
/wʲ/
|
Full palatalizating
|
(/ɥ/)
|
Palatalization, articulation → sound change
|
| Transitional palatalizing
|
/wʲ/
|
Palatalization
|
| /ð/
|
Not devoicing contexts
|
/ð/
|
Stable
|
/ð/
|
Stable
|
/ð/
|
|
| Devoicing contexts
|
(/θ/) → /θ/
|
Stable
|
/θ/
|
Stable
|
/θ/
|
Devoicing → phonemicizing
|
Monophthongs and diphthongs[D]
| Old MK
|
Condition →
|
Early Mod.
|
Condition →
|
Modern
|
Notes
|
| /a/
|
Stressed and unspecific C
|
/a/
|
Stable
|
/a/
|
|
| Unstressed and unspecific C
|
(/ə/)
|
Closed syllable and deletion results in unlawful coda
|
(/ə/)
|
Reduction
|
| Open syllable or closed syllable and deletion results in lawful coda
|
∅
|
Reduction → deletion (does not apply where morphologic, e.g. plurals)
|
| Before /n/, /m/, /lm/
|
(/ã/)
|
Stable
|
(/ã/)
|
Nasalization
|
| Before /j/
|
/ai̯/
|
Stable
|
/ai̯/
|
Glide reanalysis
|
| Before /w/
|
/au̯/
|
Stable
|
/au̯/
|
Glide reanalysis
|
| /aː/
|
Not before /w/
|
/ai̯/
|
Stable
|
/ai̯/
|
Diphthongization
|
| Before /w/
|
/au̯/
|
Stable
|
/au̯/
|
Glide reanalysis
|
| /e/
|
Stressed and open syllable and unspecific C
|
/e/
|
Unspecific C
|
/e̞/
|
Merger
|
| Before /n/, /m/, /ln/, /lm/
|
(/ɛ̃/)
|
Nasalization
|
| Stressed and closed syllable and unspecific C
|
/ɛ/
|
Unspecific C
|
/e̞/
|
Merger
|
| Before /n/, /m/, /ln/, /lm/
|
(/ɛ̃/)
|
Nasalization
|
| Unstressed and unspecific C
|
(/ə/)
|
Closed syllable and deletion results in unlawful coda
|
(/ə/)
|
Reduction
|
| Open syllable or closed syllable and deletion results in lawful coda
|
∅
|
Reduction → deletion (does not apply where morphologic, e.g. plurals)
|
| Before /j/
|
/ei̯/
|
Stable
|
/ei̯/
|
Glide reanalysis
|
| Before /w/
|
(/ɛu̯/)
|
Stable
|
/ɛu̯/
|
Glide reanalysis → phonemicizing
|
| /eː/
|
Not before /w/
|
/ei̯/
|
Stable
|
/ei̯/
|
Diphthongization
|
| Before /w/
|
(/ɛu̯/)
|
Stable
|
/ɛu̯/
|
Glide reanalysis → phonemicizing
|
| /i/
|
Stressed or open syllable
|
/i/
|
Stable
|
/i/
|
|
| Unstressed and closed syllable
|
(/ɪ/)
|
Stable
|
/ɪ/
|
Laxing → phonemicizing
|
| /iː/
|
Stable
|
/i/
|
Stable
|
/i/
|
Shortening
|
| /o/
|
Stressed and unspecific C
|
/o/
|
Stable
|
/o/
|
|
| Unstressed and unspecific C
|
(/ə/)
|
Closed syllable and deletion results in unlawful coda
|
(/ə/)
|
Reduction
|
| Open syllable or closed syllable and deletion results in lawful coda
|
∅
|
Reduction → deletion (does not apply where morphologic, e.g. plurals)
|
| Before /n/, /m/, /ln/, /lm/
|
(/ɔ̃/)
|
Stable
|
(/ɔ̃/)
|
Nasalization
|
| Before /j/
|
/oi̯/ → /ɔi̯/
|
Stable
|
/ɔi̯/
|
Glide reanalysis → vowel lowering
|
| Before /w/
|
/ou̯/
|
Stable
|
/ou̯/
|
Glide reanalysis
|
| /oː/
|
Not before /w/
|
/oi̯/ → /ɔi̯/
|
Stable
|
/ɔi̯/
|
Diphthongization → vowel lowering
|
| Before /w/
|
/ou̯/
|
Stable
|
/ou̯/
|
Glide reanalysis
|
| /u/
|
Not before /j/
|
/u/
|
Stable
|
/u/
|
|
| Before /j/
|
/ui̯/
|
Stable
|
/ui̯/
|
Glide reanalysis
|
| /uː/
|
Not after /j/
|
/ui̯/
|
Stable
|
/ui̯/
|
Diphthongization
|
| After /j/
|
/u/
|
Stable
|
/u/
|
Blocked pressure
|
| /y/
|
Stressed or open syllable
|
/y/
|
Stable
|
/y/
|
|
| Unstressed and closed syllable
|
(/ʏ/)
|
Stable
|
(/ʏ/)
|
Laxing
|
| /yː/
|
Stable
|
/y/
|
Stable
|
/y/
|
Shortening
|
| /ɑ/
|
Unspecific C
|
/ɑ/
|
Stable
|
/ɑ/
|
|
| Before /n/, /m/, /lm/
|
(/ã/)
|
Stable
|
(/ã/)
|
Nasalization
|
| Before /j/
|
/ai̯/
|
Stable
|
/ai̯/
|
Glide reanalysis
|
| Before /w/
|
/au̯/
|
Stable
|
/au̯/
|
Glide reanalysis
|
| /ɑː/
|
Not before /w/
|
/ai̯/
|
Stable
|
/ai̯/
|
Diphthongization
|
| Before /w/
|
/au̯/
|
Stable
|
/au̯/
|
Glide reanalysis
|
- ^ D Most vowel transitions between Old Low Maas and Old Meckelnish include resolving weak vowel sequences and yod-insertion.
Formal inventories
Old Meckelnish
Consonants
|
|
Labial
|
Dental
|
Alveolar
|
Palatal
|
Velar
|
Glottal
|
| Nasal
|
m
|
|
n
|
|
(ŋ)
|
|
| Plosive
|
p
|
b
|
|
t
|
d
|
|
k
|
g
|
|
| Fricative
|
f
|
β
|
(θ)
|
ð
|
s
|
z
|
|
x
|
(ɣ)
|
h
|
| Approximant
|
|
|
l
|
j
|
w
|
|
| Rhotic
|
|
|
ɹ
|
|
|
|
Vowels
|
|
Front
|
Central
|
Back
|
| unrounded
|
rounded
|
| short
|
long
|
short
|
long
|
short
|
long
|
| Close
|
i
|
iː
|
y
|
yː
|
|
u
|
uː
|
| Mid
|
e
|
eː
|
|
|
ə
|
o
|
oː
|
| Open
|
a
|
aː
|
|
|
|
ɑ
|
ɑː
|
Early Modern
Consonants (simplified)
|
|
Labial
|
Dental
|
Alveolar
|
Post-
alveolar
|
Palatal
|
Velar
|
Glottal
|
| Nasal
|
m
|
|
n
|
|
|
|
|
| Plosive
|
p
|
b
|
|
t
|
d
|
|
|
k
|
g
|
|
| Fricative
|
f
|
v
|
θ
|
ð
|
s
|
z
|
(ʃ)
|
(ʒ)
|
ç
|
x
|
ɣ
|
h
|
(ɦ)
|
| Approximant
|
|
|
l
|
|
j
|
w
|
|
| Rhotic
|
|
|
ɹ
|
|
|
|
|
Palatalization and postalveolarization
|
|
Post-alveolar
|
Palatal
|
| Nasal
|
|
n → (ɲ)
|
|
| Affricative
|
t → (t͡ɕ)
|
d → (d͡ʑ)
|
k → (k͡ç)
|
g → (g͡ʝ)
|
| Fricative
|
s → (ʃ)
|
(z) → (ʒ)
|
x → ç
|
ɣ → (ʝ)
|
h → ç
|
| Approx.
|
plain
|
|
l → (ʎ) / lʲ
|
|
| labial
|
w → (ɥ) / wʲ
|
Monophthongs
|
|
Front
|
Central
|
Back
|
| unrounded
|
rounded
|
| oral
|
nasal
|
oral
|
nasal
|
| Close
|
i
|
|
y
|
|
u
|
|
| Near-close
|
(ɪ)
|
|
(ʏ)
|
|
|
|
| Close-mid
|
e
|
|
|
(ə)
|
o
|
|
| Open-mid
|
ɛ
|
(ɛ̃)
|
|
|
(ɔ̃)
|
| Open
|
a
|
(ã)
|
|
|
ɑ
|
|
Diphthongs
|
|
Fronting
|
Backing
|
| Close
|
ui̯
|
|
| Close-mid
|
ei̯
|
ou̯
|
| Open-mid
|
oi̯ / ɔi̯
|
(ɛu̯)
|
| Open
|
ai̯
|
au̯
|
Vocabulary
Language comparisons
Singular nominative nouns
Istvanistani
gloss
|
Old Low Maas
|
Old Meckelnish
|
Meckelnish
|
Batavian
|
Madison Isle
Batavian
|
Crandish
|
| "child"
|
|
|
|
kind
|
bern
|
kint
|
| "church"
|
keerek
|
keerek
|
keirk
|
kerk
|
tsjerke
|
kiirke
|
| "day"
|
|
|
|
dag
|
dei
|
tai
|
| "father"
|
fåter
|
fåðer
|
fåðer
|
vader
|
heit
|
fater
|
| "fortified city"
|
borech
|
borech
|
borch
|
burg
|
boarg
|
buurg
|
| "harbor"
|
haaƀe
|
haaƀe
|
haiƀ
|
haven
|
haven
|
haven
|
| "house"
|
|
|
|
huis
|
hûs
|
huz
|
| "king"
|
kyyning
|
kjüüning
|
kjüning
|
koning
|
kening
|
küning
|
| "man"
|
|
|
|
man
|
man
|
mann
|
| "water"
|
|
|
|
water
|
wetter
|
vater
|
| "woman"
|
|
|
|
vrouw
|
frou
|
famne
|
Remember old /e/ sound
United Kingdom of Meckelnburgh
