User:James E Wilary/Sandbox-MKarticle-full

Meckelnish
Meckelnburghish
Mächeleböörchsch
Pronunciation	[ˈmæxəl(ə)ˌbøːɹ̈xʃ]
Native to	Meckelnburgh Alexandretta Siegrwangria The Clanlands Branniboria
Region	Northern Apollonia Tallandor Bay Crowsilver Sea Esthar
Ethnicity	Meckelners
Native speakers	approx. [unknown]
Language family	Pancontinental Prætaic–Arminic Crando–Batavian Apollo–Batavian Meckelnish
Early forms	Proto–Crando–Batavian Old Low Maas Old Meckelnish Early Modern Meckelnish
Standard form	Victoria University Standard
Dialects	Insular (Branniboria)
Writing system	Audente script (Meckelnish alphabet)
Official status
Official language in	United Kingdom of Meckelnburgh  Meckelnburgh  Branniboria
Regulated by	Royal Academy of Letters
Language codes
MOS-9 codes	mk

Phonology

Meckelnish shares a phonological system with the broader Crando–Batavian languages, including a complex syllable structure extending to (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C)—a syllable may include a single vowel core preceded by up to three-sound consonant clusters and followed by four-sound clusters. However, there are a few notable exceptions unique to the Apollo–Batavian branch. Meckelnish retains productive dental fricative phonemes (/θ/ and /ð/) from Proto–Crando–Batavian. The system of palatalization, leading to sound change, has also expanded through a generalization of the weak realization in Batavian (where the sequence ⟨sj⟩ creates /ʃ/, as in Meckelnish).

The Meckelnish language is stress-initial in native roots, and stress does not serve to distinguish native words. Secondary stress is placed in compound words on the second word. Where a prefix is used, such as /gə-/ in some past-tense verbs, the stress remains on the first syllable of the root. Outside of morphological contexts, unstressed /ə/ is heavily subject to deletion causing the loss of syllables.

Historic monophthongs

	Front				Back
	unrounded		rounded
	long	short	long	short	long	short
Close	iː	i	yː	y	uː	u
Mid	eː	eː	øː	ø	oː	o
Open	æː	æ			ɑː	ɑ

The vowel system of Meckelnish is subject to different interpretations. There are 15 vowels which may serve in a phonemic role, but only seven to eight vowel spaces—where other short or reduced vowels are derivative of the cardinal stressed vowels. In Old Meckelnish, sounds such as /ɛ/ were formally the short counterparts of the cardinal vowels, in this instance /e/ (see table). Only long vowels, such as /eː/, have retained their original quality while the short vowels have laxed. By laxing, /ø/ since merged into /ʏ/ by the end of Old Low Maas.

Consonants

		Labial		Dental		Alveolar		Post-alveolar		Palatal		Velar		Glottal
Nasal		m				n				(ɲ)		(ŋ)
Plosive/Affricate		p	b			t	d	t͡ʃ	d͡ʒ	(c͡ç)	(ɟ͡ʝ)	k	g
Fricative		f	v	θ	ð	s	z	ʃ	ʒ	(ç)	(ʝ)	x		h	(ɦ)
Approx.	Central									j		ɹ̈
	Lateral					l				(ʎ)		(ɫ)
	Labial									(ɥ)		w

• /x/ is realized in coda-position after close front unrounded vowels (/i/, /ɪ/) as /ç/.
• /n/ is realized in coda-position as /ŋ/ before velar plosives (/k/, /g/) and /g/ is deleted, where /ngk/ clusters realize as /ŋk/.
• /s/ is voiced following voiced consonants (e.g. /b/, /d/, /g/, /m/, /n/) as /z/.
• Voiceless fricatives (/f/, /θ/, /s/, /ʃ/, /h/) are voiced in intervocalic positions as their voiced counterparts (/v/, /ð/, /z/, /ʒ/, /ɦ/).
• Palatalizing consonants (see table) change before /j/ or front rounded vowels (/y/, /ʏ/, /øː/), including intersyllabic.
• Fronting palatalizing consonants change after /j/ or front rounded vowels, including intersyllabic.
• Alveolar plosives and fricatives (/t/, /d/, /s/, /z/) are realized as postalveolar (/t͡ʃ/, /d͡ʒ/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/) before /ɹ̈/.
• /h/ follows a complex allophonic system (see table) realized as /h/, /ɦ/, /x/ or /ç/.
• /d/ lenites to /ð/ intervocalically where not morphologically hardened.
• /l/ is velarized in word-final position as /ɫ/.
• The rhotic may have various realizations, but in standard Meckelnish is the bunched velar form of /ɹ/.
• The voiceless plosives (/p/, /t/, /k/) are aspirated word-initially and onset of stressed syllables ([pʰ], [tʰ], [kʰ]).
• In Meckelnish phonology, /ɹ̈/ is often rendered as /r/ for simplicity and to generalize the rhotic.

Palatalization

	Backing		Fronting
Nasal	n → ɲ
Affricate	t → t͡ʃ	d → d͡ʒ	k, x → c͡ç	g → ɟ͡ʝ
Fricative	s → ʃ	z → ʒ	h → ç	ɹ̈ → ʝ
Approx.	l → ʎ		w → ɥ

H-allophones

Vowels		IPA
Front	rounded	ç
	close
	mid–open	h
Back	close	x
	mid–open	ɦ

Vowels

Cardinal vowels in Meckelnish.

Monophthongs

	Front				Central	Back
	unrounded		rounded
	long	short	long	short		long	short
Close	i	ɪ	y	ʏ	(ə)	u	ʊ
Mid	eː	ɛ	øː	(œ)		oː	ɔ
Open	(ɛː)	æ			äː		ɑ

Di- and triphthongs

	Front			Back
	unrounded		rounded
	fronting	backing		fronting	backing
Close		iə̯u̯		ui̯
Mid	ɛi̯	eːu̯	øːy̯	ɔi̯	oːu̯
Open				ɑi̯

• Long vowels only exist in stressed syllables, except in cross-syllable mergers (e.g. former /ze.ənˈtɛɹ̈ə/ > /zeːnˈtɛɹ̈ə/).
• /ə/ can serve in a stressed syllable if it is a minor word (i.e. articles, pronouns, etc.).
• The umlauts of back vowels serve morphological functions, such as various plural nouns and verb tenses (see below).
• Umlauted vowels used only in morphological contexts are included under "Grammar" and omitted for clarity.
• /j/ vocalizes to /i̯/ following a front unrounded or back vowel (e.g. /ɛ/, /ɑ/, /u/) in a syllable
• /j/ vocalizes to /y̯/ following a front rounded vowel (/y/, /øː/, /ʏ/).
• /w/ vocalizes to /u̯/ following a vowel.
• Adjoining /i/ or /ɪ/ merge to /i/, /y/ or /ʏ/ to /y/, and /u/ to /u/, including across syllables.
• /ɛ/ reduces to /ə/ in weak, most unstressed, positions.
• /ə/ deletes in open syllables if a lawful consonant cluster forms and is not morphologically significant (i.e. plurals).
• In Meckelnish phonology, /äː/ is often rendered as /aː/ for simplicity and to generalize the open mid rounded vowel.

Orthography

Comparison of forms of ⟨ij⟩ in italics.

The Meckelnish language's writing system has retained many of the features seen only in Proto–Crando–Batavian with numerous inventions, with most of the orthography stabilized in the Old Low Maas period. Meckelnish has retained the dental fricatives ⟨þ⟩ and ⟨ð⟩ while using umlauts to indicate fronting. The letter ⟨j⟩ has broad use in indicating the system of palatalization after many consonants, where it becomes a multigraph. The letter ⟨c⟩ has lost all associated sounds, and is only used in multigraphs. The rare letter ⟨ƀ⟩ for Micran languages developed from former ⟨b⟩ where the sound /β/ existed, dividing into /v/, /w/ and /b/ in various contexts. More usual, sound length is usually indicated by doubling the letter (e.g. ⟨a⟩ for /ɑ/ becoming ⟨aa⟩ for /äː/).

Spelling (and orthography) in Meckelnish has been standardized since the Early Meckelnish Era in metropolitan Meckelnburgh on the Genevelond Peninsula through multiple community efforts and later the University of Victoria via the Royal Academy of Letters, known as Victoria University Standard. The Insular Dialect found on Esthar in the constituent country of Branniboria, diverged from over a century of limited contact, adopted similar spelling, albeit for different pronunciations, starting around 1720 AN.

Meckelnish letter names solidified by the Old Meckelnish era. While many letters were based on nouns that applied their sounds, these names have fossilized so that their meanings (or even accompanying words) have not changed in parallel.

Alphabet

Majuscule	A	Ä	B	Ƀ	C	D	E	F	G	H	I	J	K	L	M	N	O	Ö	P	R	S	T	U	Ü	W	IJ	Z	Þ	Ð
Minuscule	a	ä	b	ƀ	c	d	e	f	g	h	i	j	k	l	m	n	o	ö	p	r	s	t	u	ü	w	ij	z	þ	ð
Name	aas	äes	beer	ƀee	see	doo	een	äf	ga	ha	ijs	jod	ka	äl	äm	än	oos	öös	pee	är	äs	tee	uuw	üüw	ween	ijg	zod	þorn	äð

• ⟨ij⟩ is an independent letter formed as a single-character-space ligature.
• In printing, ⟨ij⟩ may appear in majuscule as a modified ⟨U⟩ (especially monospaced), and in minuscule italics similar to ⟨ÿ⟩.
• The front umlaut vowels ⟨ä⟩, ⟨ö⟩ and ⟨ü⟩ are written with umlauts, and are separate letters.
• Likewise, the letter ⟨b⟩ with stroke is not merely a variant, but a letter in its own right.
• Other diacritics, such as ⟨é⟩ for word-final /eː/ and ⟨ë⟩ for adjacent cross-syllable vowels, are not independent letters.

Consonants

Consonants

Spelling	IPA
b	/b/
ƀ	/v/
d	/d/
f	/f/
g	/g/
h	/h/, /ɦ/, /ç/, /x/
j	/j/
k	/k/
l	/l/, /ɫ/
m	/m/
n	/n/
p	/p/
r	/ɹ̈/
s	/s/, /z/
t	/t/
w	/w/
z	/z/
þ	/θ/
ð	/ð/

Multigraphs

Spelling	IPA
ch	/x/, /ç/, /c͡ç/
dj	/d͡ʒ/
dsch	/d͡ʒ/
ggh	/ɟ͡ʝ/
gj	/ɟ͡ʝ/
hj	/ç/
kj	/c͡ç/
kkh	/c͡ç/
lj	/ʎ/
ng	/ŋ/
nj	/ɲ/
rj	/ʝ/
sc(h)	/ʃ/, /ʒ/
sj	/ʃ/
tj	/t͡ʃ/
tsch	/t͡ʃ/
wj	/ɥ/
zj	/ʒ/
zsch	/ʒ/

• ⟨h⟩ is deleted syllable-finally, where it is either deleted (/∅/) or becomes ⟨ch⟩ for the appropriate sound.
• Where ⟨j⟩ following a consonant triggers a palatalization change, the ⟨j⟩ becomes part of a digraph.
• However, where ⟨j⟩ after a consonant does not trigger palatalization, it is a consonant cluster (e.g. /bjV/)
• Because palatalization exists across syllable boundaries, consonants merge into the stressed syllable.
• The multigraphs ending in ⟨Csch⟩ are used word-finally, while ending in ⟨j⟩ elsewhere.
• Palatalized word-final consonants exchange ⟨h⟩ for ⟨j⟩ in a multigraph.
• The multigraphs ⟨ggh⟩ and ⟨kkh⟩ are word final instead of single consonants.
• ⟨ch⟩ serves as /c͡ç/ word-finally instead of ⟨kkh⟩ when palatalizing /x/ instead of /k/.
• While the historic cluster /ŋg/ is reduced to /ŋ/, ⟨ng⟩ is retained wherever the former /ng/ or /ngk/ existed.
• Except where explicit (any ⟨h⟩), all but ⟨s⟩ and ⟨sch⟩ are spelled with the appropriate sound's letter.
• ⟨s⟩ and ⟨sch⟩ are used for allophones /z/ and /ʒ/ where morphological added word-finally (e.g. genitives).
• Consonants are doubled when following inflected roots where the root vowel was already short.
• Where a palatalized consonant is doubled for a short vowel, ⟨Cj⟩ becomes ⟨CCj⟩.
• Spellings ⟨sch⟩ and ⟨tsch⟩ are when the sound is organic, palatalized final ⟨s⟩ and ⟨t⟩ are ⟨sj⟩ and ⟨tj⟩.
• ⟨h⟩ and its allophonic or palatalized forms are written ⟨h⟩, ⟨hj⟩ arises morphologically.
• ⟨n⟩, ⟨l⟩, ⟨w⟩ and ⟨r⟩ do not mark palatalization with ⟨j⟩ by default.

Vowels

Vowels

Spelling	IPA
	major	minor
a	/ɑ/	/äː/
ä	/æ/
e	/ɛ/	/ə/, /∅/
é	/ɛ/	—
i	/ɪ/	—
ij	/i/
o	/ɔ/	/oː/
ö	/œ/	/øː/
u	/ʊ/	/u/
ü	/ʏ/	/y/

Multigraphs (A–IJ)

Spelling	IPA
aa	/äː/
äe	/ɛː/
ai	/ai̯/
äi	/æi̯/
ee	/eː/
eei	/eːi̯/
ei	/ɛi̯/
eu(w)	/eːu̯/
ieu(w)	/iə̯u̯/
ije	/iː/

Multigraphs (O–Ü)

Spelling	IPA
oi	/ɔi̯/
oo	/oː/
ou(w)	/oːu̯/
öi	/œi̯/
öö	/øː/
öei	/øːi̯/
öu(w)	/øːy̯/
ui	/ui̯/
uu	/u/
üi	/yi̯/
üü	/y/

• Doubled vowel letters indicate the long form of that sound—single letters vary more widely.
• When ⟨j⟩ follows ⟨i⟩, not the letter ⟨ij⟩, an interpunct (⟨i‧j⟩) is put between them to separate them.
• When in a word final position or when followed by a vowel, the di- and triphthongs take a final ⟨w⟩.
• ⟨é⟩ is used in word-final position for /ɛ/ to distinguish from reduced /ə/.
• ⟨ö⟩ alone is only /œ/ in umlaut, as ⟨ü⟩ stands for the short vowel of /øː/, /ʏ/.
• Where ⟨'⟩ is used for an enclitic form, it stands in for /ə/.
• When ⟨e⟩ follows a single consonant, doubled vowels are written as single (e.g. ⟨CuuC⟩ > ⟨CuCe⟩).

Grammar

Meckelnish follows the common Crando–Batavian system of grammar, with past and present tenses, three genders (masculine, neuter, feminine), and two numbers (singular and plural). The dual number was lost in the Old Low Maas era. However, Meckelnish retains many features lost elsewhere in Crando–Batavian languages, including the subjunctive mood, the genitive case and incomplete deletion of stem-final dental consonants (i.e. not /d/ > /ð/ > /∅/) in morphology. For adjectives, Meckelnish has the lost the distinction between definite and indefinite forms, and instead decline according to the noun being modified, except in the predicate. Meckelnish also uses stressed forms of some reference terms by adding final ⟨-e⟩, so that words like "þat " ("that") and "dijch" ("you") become "þatte" and "dijche" (e.g. "Not him, but you."). Meckelnish has double negation, with general "not" (⟨neet⟩) combined with pre-verbal ⟨än⟩ (e.g. "I not [än] visit the store not [neet].").

Meckelnish has a complex system of umlaut where certain back vowels (see table) are shifted to the front in morphology, such as in the subjunctive mood, diminutive nouns and some plurals of nouns. Umlauting words have a root stem with a back or central vowel or diphthong (e.g. ⟨a⟩, ⟨au⟩, ⟨oo⟩) while umlautless words do not (e.g. ⟨ä⟩, ⟨ei⟩, ⟨ö⟩). Morphology in many words has also undergone T-deletion, where the ⟨-t⟩ suffix is lost in stems, except those ending in approximants (⟨j⟩, ⟨l⟩, ⟨r⟩, ⟨w⟩) and nasals (⟨m⟩, ⟨n⟩, ⟨ng⟩). A common change in forms is that bare final ⟨e⟩ is almost always followed by ⟨n⟩ before ⟨t⟩, ⟨d⟩, ⟨þ⟩, ⟨ð⟩, a vowel or ⟨h⟩ in the following word—notably not in verb suffixes. Meckelnish has also not undergone /θ/ > /d/ hardening in determinatives.

Morphological umlaut

		Mono.		Di- and triphthongs
				front		back
		stem	umlaut	stem	umlaut	stem	umlaut
Close		/u/ ⟨uu⟩	/y/ ⟨üü⟩	/iə̯u̯/ ⟨ieu⟩	/iː/ ⟨ije⟩	/ui̯/ ⟨ui⟩	/yi̯/ ⟨üi⟩
Near-close		/ʊ/ ⟨u⟩	/ʏ/ ⟨ü⟩
Close-mid		/oː/ ⟨oo⟩	/øː/ ⟨öö⟩	/eːu̯/ ⟨eu⟩	/eːi̯/ ⟨eei⟩	/oːu̯/ ⟨ou⟩	/øːi̯/ ⟨öei⟩
Open-mid		/ɔ/ ⟨o⟩	/œ/ ⟨ö⟩			/ɔi̯/ ⟨oi⟩	/œi̯/ ⟨öi⟩
Open	front	/äː/ ⟨aa⟩	/ɛː/ ⟨äe⟩			/ɑi̯/ ⟨ai⟩	/æi̯/ ⟨äi⟩
	back	/ɑ/ ⟨a⟩	/æ/ ⟨ä⟩

Like most Prætaic–Arminic languages, Meckelnish is a verb-second (V2) language, following a subject-verb-object (SVO) word order in the main clause with only one verb (e.g. "I visit the store."). Subsequent verbs are placed in the SOV form (e.g. "I want the store to visit."), while the VSO form arises when the front of a main clause is made a modifying word instead of the subject (e.g. "Today visit I the store."). These combine such that a fronted subordinate clause is SOV while the main clause is VSO (e.g. "When I the store visit, want I carrots to buy."). Unlike most Crando–Batavian languages, the supine is not formed by circumlocution, but by its own morphological form ⟨-enterre⟩, such as that "I visit the store in order groceries to buy," becomes "I visit the store groceries buy-(in order to) [-enterre]," in the V2 syntax.

The vocabulary of Meckelnish also descends from Proto–Crando–Batavian, along with its morphology. As a consequence, not all forms of verbs and other words "group recognizably" in their phonology, such as descendants in Class IIIa and IIIb verbs (i.e. /ɪ/ versus /æ/ Grade 1 stems). Many forms of especially verbs have also simplified so that a greater number of verbs are weak as compared to other Crando–Batavian languages.

Determinatives

		Articles									Demonstratives
		definite				indefinite				negative
		nominative		genitive		nominative		genitive
		full	enc.	full	enc.	full	enc.	full	enc.		proximal	distal
sing.	masc.	þe (þ'n)		þes	's	ene(n)	'ne(n)	eens	'ns	geine(n)	þeze(n)	þee(n)
	neut.	het	't			e ('n)				gee(n)	þit	þat
	fem.	þe (þ'n)		þer		een	'n	ener		gein	þees	þij(n)
plural						—

• Word-final ⟨n⟩ is added in various forms before ⟨t⟩, ⟨d⟩, ⟨þ⟩, ⟨ð⟩, a vowel or ⟨h⟩.
• The enclitic forms of determinatives are usually used, with full forms in stressed or comparative uses.
• Enclitic determinatives are not capitalized at the start of a sentence, instead the following word is.

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

			Subject		Object		Possessive						Reflexive
							masculine		neuter		fem./plural
			full	enc.	full	enc.	full	enc.	full	enc.	full	enc.
sing.	1st		ijch	'ch	mijch	m'ch	mijne(n)	m'ne(n)	mij(n)	me (m'n)	mijn	m'n	mijch	m'ch
	2nd	fam.	dijch	de	dijch	d'ch	dijne(n)	d'ne(n)	dij(n)	de (d'n)	dijn	d'n	dijch	d'ch
		polite	duur	d'r	üüch		örje(n)		öörh				üüch
	3rd	masc.	heer	'r	hem	'm	zijne(n)	z'ne(n)	zij(n)	ze (z'n)	zijn	z'n	zijch	z'ch
		neut.	het	't	het	't
		fem.	zij	ze	hürh	'r	hörje(n)	're(n)	höörh	'r	höörh	'r
		indef.	me				ege(n)		eeg
plur.	1st		ƀeer	ƀ'r	üsch		üzje(n)		üüsch				üsch
	2nd		geer	g'r	üüch		örje(n)		öörh				üüch
	3rd		zij	ze	hünh		hünnje(n)		hünh				zijch	z'ch
	epicene		dee
dummy			þaar	þ'r	—

• Personal pronouns are rendered in their full form when stressed and their enclitic form when not.
• Word-final ⟨n⟩ is added in possessive forms before ⟨t⟩, ⟨d⟩, ⟨þ⟩, ⟨ð⟩, a vowel or ⟨h⟩.
• "Þa" is a dummy pronoun standing for "existential there," the form of "there" not used in a locative sense (e.g. "there are plants in the city").
• "Het" can also be a dummy pronoun, known as "weather it," where it is a subject without reference to an another noun (e.g. "it is raining").
• "Eeg" serves as an intensifier, meaning "one's own," but by generalization is also the possessive form of the indefinite pronoun "me."
• ⟨duur⟩ took the form ⟨duu⟩ before harmonizing with other forms ⟨heer⟩, ⟨ƀeer⟩ and ⟨geer⟩.
• The enclitic forms of pronouns are usually used, with full forms in stressed or comparative uses, and often at the start of sentences.
• Enclitic pronouns are still capitalized at the start of a sentence.

Indefinite pronouns

	Human	Place	Object
indefinite	ijmes	ürjges	eets
negative	nijmes	njürjges	niks
universal	eðereen	üƀeraal	alles

Interrogative pronouns

	Who	What/which	Where	When	Why	How	Which
nom./acc.	wee	wat	wu	wan	wurjüm	hu	wat(te)(C)
genitive	wees		—

• "Wat" as meaning "which" is declined according to the same rules as an adjective.

Verbs

• When a verb stem ends in ⟨s⟩, then the singular second-person suffix ⟨-s⟩ is omitted.
• When a stem ends in ⟨ch⟩, then a ⟨-t-⟩ is added before a suffix starting with ⟨-e⟩.
• The participles inflect with the suffix ⟨-e⟩ when modifying a noun as an adjective.
• ⟨ge-⟩ is omitted from the past participle when a verb already includes a prefix.
• The supine suffix ⟨-enterre⟩ shifts stress (/-ənˈtɛɹ̈ə/), while other suffixes are unstressed.
• /d/ becomes /ð/ at the end of a stem non-intervocalically if undergoing umlaut.
• ⟨-n⟩ is added word-final to any form ending in ⟨e⟩ before ⟨t⟩, ⟨d⟩, ⟨þ⟩, ⟨ð⟩, a vowel or ⟨h⟩.
• Suffixes are palatalized when needed (i.e. after a bare front rounded vowel).

Weak verbs

Umlautless weak verbs

infinitive		-e
supine		-enterre
		I	IIa	IIb	I	IIa	IIb	I	IIa	IIb
		present			past/subj.			imperative
sing.	1st	-∅			-de			-∅
	2nd	-s			-des
	3rd	-∅	-t	-p, t, k	-de
plur.	1st	-e			-de			-∅	-t	-p, t, k
	2nd	-∅	-t	-p, t, k	-det
	3rd	-e			-de
		present			past
participle		-end			ge-	ge-, -d	ge-, -p, t, k

Umlaut-having weak verbs

infinitive		-e
supine		-enterre
		III	IV	past	subj.	III	IV
		present				imp.
sing.	1st	-∅		-de	um.-de	-∅
	2nd	um.-s		-des	um.-des
	3rd	um.	um. -p, t, k	-de	um.-de
plur.	1st	-e		-de	um.-de	um.	-p, t, k
	2nd	um.	-p, t, k	-det	um.-det
	3rd	-e		-de	um.-de
		present		past
participle		-end		ge-, -e

Reverse-umlaut weak verbs

infinitive		um.-nge, -nke
supine		um.-ngenterre, -nkenterre
		present	past/subj.	imp.
sing.	1st	um.-ng, -nk	-ch	um.-ng, -nk
	2nd	um.-ngs, -nks	-chs
	3rd	um.-ngk, -nk	-ch
plur.	1st	um.-nge, -nke	-chte	um.-ngk, -nk
	2nd	um.-ngk, -nk	-ch
	3rd	um.-nge, -nke	-chte
		present	past
participle		um.-ngend, -nkend	ge-, -ch

Classification

Categorization of weak verbs by class

		Vowel	T-del.	Terminal consonant
Class I		no umlaut	yes	plosives, fricatives, affricates
Class II	(a)		no	approximants ⟨j⟩, ⟨l⟩, ⟨r⟩, ⟨w⟩
	(b)			nasals ⟨m⟩, ⟨n⟩, ⟨ng⟩
Class III		umlauting	yes	plosives, fricatives, affricates
Class IV			no	nasals, approximants
Class V		reverse umlauting	yes	some ⟨n⟩ followed by velar plosive ⟨ng⟩, ⟨nk⟩

• As umlauting verbs, Class III and IV verbs umlaut their core vowel sounds (e.g. /CoːC/ > /CøːCs/) (see table).
• Class I and III verbs have undergone T-deletion and lost their ⟨-t⟩ and ⟨-d⟩ suffixes in all forms.
• Stems ending in nasal consonants (⟨m⟩, ⟨n⟩, ⟨ng⟩) suffix their respective voiceless plosive ⟨-p⟩, ⟨-t⟩ and ⟨-k⟩.
• Class IV verbs use ⟨-t⟩ as a suffix for all consonants except the nasals, as explained.
• Reverse-umlauting verbs have infinitive roots that are umlauted from their past-tense root form.
• Class V verbs have core roots that end in ⟨-ch⟩ in their past tense but either ⟨-ng⟩ or ⟨-nk⟩ in their present.

Strong verbs

Strong verb conjugation pattern

infinitive		(1)-e
supine		(1)-enterre
		T-del.	no del.	past	subj.	T-del.	no del.
		present				imp.
sing.	1st	(1)		(3)	(3 um.)	(1)
	2nd	(2)-s		(3)-s	(3 um.)-s
	3rd	(2)	(2)-t, p, k	(3)	(3 um.)
plur.	1st	(1)-e		(3)-e	(3 um.)-e	(1)	(1)-t, p, k
	2nd	(1)	(1)-t, p, k	(3)	(3 um.)
	3rd	(1)-e		(3)-e	(3 um.)-e
		present		past
participle		(1)-end		ge-(4)-e

Preterite-present conjugation pattern

infinitive		stem-e
supine		stem-enterre
		T-del.	no del.	past/subj. formulation			T-del.	no del.
		present		onset	past	subj.	imp.
sing.	1st	stem		first letter of the stem-	-os	-üsch	stem
	2nd	stem-s			-os	-üsch
	3rd	stem	stem -t, p, k		-os	-üsch
plur.	1st	stem-e			-oste	-üscte	stem	stem -t, p, k
	2nd	stem	stem -t, p, k		-os	-üsch
	3rd	stem-e			-oste	-üscte
		present		past
participle		stem-end		ge-stem-e

Classification

Categorization of strong verbs by class

		Grade 1	Grade 3	Grade 4
Class I		ij	ee
Class II	(a)	ee	oo
	(b)	üü
Class III	(a)	i	oo
	(b)	ä	o
Class IV	(a)	ee	aa	oo
	(b)		oo
Class V		ee	aa	ee
Class VI		aa	oo	aa
Class VII		*V	ee	*V
Pret.-Pres.		*V	o	*V

• Strong verbs have four stem grades: root (1), third-person singular (2), past (3) and past participle (4).
• If a Grade 3 stem (past) in a strong verb can umlaut, the Grade 3 stem umlauts in the subjunctive.
• Umlauts conjugate only when creating subjunctives with Grade 3—some Grade 2 stems derive by umlaut.
• Grade 2 stems are highly irregular, depend on the phonotactic context, and do not define the verb classes.
• T-retaining verbs use ⟨-t⟩ as a suffix for all consonants except the nasals.
• Stems ending in nasal consonants (⟨m⟩, ⟨n⟩, ⟨ng⟩) suffix their respective voiceless plosive ⟨-p⟩, ⟨-t⟩ and ⟨-k⟩.
• preterite-present verbs act like strong verbs but change their entire roots in the past, except the first letter.
• Class VII and preterite-present verbs are marked with "*V", indicating any variable verb.

Irregular verbs

"to be"

infinitive		zeen
supine		zeenterre
auxiliary		zeen
		pres.	past	subj.	imp.
sing.	1st	bin	woor	weer	bis
	2nd	bis	woors	weers
	3rd	is	woor	weer
plur.	1st	zeen	wore	were	zeet
	2nd	zeet	woort	weert
	3rd	zeen	wore	were
		pres.	past
participle		zeend	gewees

"to have"

infinitive		hübbe
supine		hübbenterre
auxiliary		hübbe
		pres.	past	subj.	imp.
sing.	1st	hüb	had	heið	hüb
	2nd	hübs	hads	heiðs
	3rd	heet	had	heið
plur.	1st	hübbe	hadde	heiðe
	2nd	hüb	had	heit
	3rd	hübbe	hadde	heiðe
		pres.	past
participle		hübbend	gehad

• Meckelnish has few irregular verbs—most verbs have become more regular (i.e. fewer strong verb ablauts).
• "Zeen" ("to be") is irregular from two verb stems, "zeen" in the present and "woor" in the past.
• "Zeen" is the only verb to merge ⟨-e*⟩ suffixes to the stem (e.g. /ze.ənˈtɛɹ̈ə/ > /zeːnˈtɛɹ̈ə/).
• The single-syllable fused verbs arise from strong verbs that lost an inter-syllabic ⟨h⟩ in their stem.

Nouns

Morphology

		Singular		Plural
		nom.	gen.	nom.	gen.
stem	fem.	-∅	-er	-e(n)	-er
	masc.		-(e)s
	neut.			-er
umlaut	fem.		um.-e(n)	um.	um.-e(n)
	m./n.		um.-es
S-nouns			-(e)s	-(e)s	-(n)e(n)

Diminutives

Stem coda	Suffix
Pre-palatal voiceless fricatives ⟨f, þ, s, sj⟩	-ke
Labial plosives ⟨p, b⟩
Approximants ⟨r, l, w⟩
Non–front rounded vowels, e.g. ⟨i, ä, o⟩
Post-labial nasals ⟨n, ng⟩
Voiced bilabial nasal ⟨m⟩	-pe
Palatal(ized) consonants ⟨nj, kj, gj, hj, rj, j, lj, wj⟩	-kje
Front rounded vowels, e.g. ⟨ü⟩
Velar consonants ⟨k, g, ch⟩	-ske
Alveolar plosives ⟨t, d⟩	-je
Voiced dental fricative ⟨ð⟩	-dje
Postalveolar affricates ⟨tj, dj⟩	-e

• Every diminutive noun is neuter regardless of the root.
• All nouns that can umlaut do so in the diminutive, not all do in the plural.
• Suffixes are palatalized when needed (i.e. after a bare front rounded vowel).
• Masculine and neuter nouns that follow umlauting have genitive ⟨-es⟩.
• /d/ becomes /ð/ at the end of a stem non-intervocalically if umlauting.
• Some irregular nouns have no plural, but follow genitive and diminutive forms.
• There are multiple realizations of the diminutive (see table).
• S-nouns are a wide group commonly ending in unstressed ⟨e⟩ (e.g. ⟨er⟩, ⟨el⟩).
• S-nouns also include those ending in a vowel, ⟨ein⟩ and ⟨ien⟩.
• Nouns ending in a long vowel before a consonant are S-nouns using ⟨-es⟩.
• Plural genitive nouns ending in a vowel have ⟨-ne⟩
• Diminutive nouns follow the pattern of S-nouns for the genitive and plural.
• ⟨-eC⟩ suffixes become ⟨-teC⟩ after ⟨-ch⟩.
• Nouns ending in ⟨s⟩ followed by an ⟨-s⟩ suffix are unmodified.
• Word-final ⟨n⟩ is added after bare ⟨-e⟩ before ⟨t⟩, ⟨d⟩, ⟨þ⟩, ⟨ð⟩, a vowel or ⟨h⟩.
• Umlauts that affect the final consonant then affect the following diminutive.
• A stem ending in ⟨ð⟩ hardens to ⟨d⟩ and adds ⟨-je⟩ in the diminutive.

Adjectives

Morphology

		Nom.	Gen.	Comp.	Super.
sing.	masc.	-e(n)	-s	-(d)ere(n)	-ste(n)
	neut.	long V, -∅, t, p, k	long V, -s	-(d)er
	fem.	-∅	-er
plural

• The only irregular adjective, ⟨guud⟩, takes the comparative forms ⟨better(e)⟩ and ⟨best(e)⟩.
• Word-final ⟨n⟩ is added after bare ⟨-e⟩ before ⟨t⟩, ⟨d⟩, ⟨þ⟩, ⟨ð⟩, a vowel or ⟨h⟩.
• Adjectives follow two different patterns: like pronouns in nominative, and like articles in genitive.
• When participles are used as adjectives, they follow the same form as all adjectives (e.g. ⟨-e⟩).
• Stem-final ⟨d⟩ lenites to ⟨ð⟩ in the masculine, feminine and plural forms.
• Neuter forms have an added ⟨t⟩, ⟨p⟩, or ⟨k⟩ after ⟨n⟩, ⟨m⟩, or ⟨ng⟩, respectively
• ⟨-eC⟩ suffixes become ⟨-teC⟩ after ⟨-ch⟩.
• Neuter positive forms use long vowels, other forms depend on the root (e.g. ⟨laangk⟩ and ⟨lang⟩).
• When used as a predicate, the root form of the adjective is used, either the feminine or neuter.
• The root form has no suffixes (⟨e⟩, ⟨t⟩, ⟨p⟩, ⟨k⟩), has the stem vowel, and ⟨d⟩ does not lenite.
• Comparative form is built on the feminine stem, and ⟨d⟩ does not lenite in the superlative.
• ⟨d⟩ is added in the comparative after ⟨l⟩, ⟨r⟩, ⟨d⟩ and ⟨d⟩.
• Suffixes are palatalized when needed (i.e. after a bare front rounded vowel).

Adverbs

Locative adverbs

	Proximal	Distal
static	heer	þaar
relative	wu