Red Laqi language: Difference between revisions

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The '''{{PAGENAME}}''' (RL. ''Plyžlaqebze'') is the variety of Laqi speech most closely associated with the [[Republic_of_Inner_Benacia#Red_Laqs|Red Laqs]]. Red Laqs originate from the Laqi Homeland in the grasslands of Brookshire, but split off to migrate west as [[Ashkenatza]] fell to ruin.
The '''{{PAGENAME}}''' (RL. ''Plyžlaqebze'') is the variety of Laqi speech most closely associated with the [[Laqs|Red Laqs]]. Red Laqs originate from the Laqi Homeland in the highlands of Brookshire, but split off to migrate west as [[Ashkenatza]] fell to ruin.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
''Main Article: [[{{PAGENAME}}/Phonology|Phonology]]''  
|-
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! colspan=2 | Labial
! colspan=2 | Alveolar
! colspan=2 | Postalveolar
! rowspan=2 | Alveolopalatal
! rowspan=2 | Retroflex
! colspan=2 | Velar
! colspan=2 | Uvular
! rowspan=2 | Pharyngeal
! colspan=2 | Glottal
|-
! style="font-size:85%" | plain
! style="font-size:85%" | lab.
! style="font-size:85%" | plain
! style="font-size:85%" | lab.
! style="font-size:85%" | plain
! style="font-size:85%" | lab.
! style="font-size:85%" | plain
! style="font-size:85%" | lab.
! style="font-size:85%" | plain
! style="font-size:85%" | lab.
! style="font-size:85%" | plain
! style="font-size:85%" | lab.
|-
! colspan=2 | Nasal
| colspan=2 | m
| colspan=2 | n
| colspan=2 |
|
|
| colspan=2 |
| colspan=2 |
|
| colspan=2 |
|-
! rowspan=3 | Plosive
! style="font-size:85%" | voiceless
| p
|
| t
|
|
|
|
|
|
| kʷ
| q
| qʷ
|
| ʔ
| ʔʷ
|-
! style="font-size:85%" | voiced
| b
|
| d
|
|
|
|
|
|
| gʷ
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="font-size:85%" | ejective
| p'
| pʷ'
| t'
| tʷ'
|
|
|
|
|
| kʷ'
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan=3 | Affricate
! style="font-size:85%" | voiceless
|
|
| t͡s
| t͡sʷ
| t͡ʃ
|
|
| t͡ʂ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="font-size:85%" | voiced
|
|
| d͡z
| d͡zʷ
| d͡ʒ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="font-size:85%" | ejective
|
|
| t͡s'
|
| t͡ʃ'
|
|
| t͡ʂ'
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan=3 | Fricative
! style="font-size:85%" | voiceless
| f
|
| s
| ɬ
| ʃ
| ʃʷ
| ɕ
| ʂ
| x
| xʷ
| χ
| χʷ
| ħ
|
|
|-
! style="font-size:85%" | voiced
|
|
| z
| ɮ
| ʒ
| ʒʷ
| ʑ
| ʐ
| ɣ
|
| ʁ
| ʁʷ
|
|
|
|-
! style="font-size:85%" | ejective
|
|
|  
| ɬ'
| ʃ'
| ʃʷ'
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Approximant
|
|
|
|
|
|
| j
|
|
| w
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | Trill
|
|
| r
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!
! Central
|-
! Close-mid
| ə
|-
! Open
| a aː
|}
 
==Orthography==


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
Line 399: Line 159:
| ''rezeġen'' "to become content"
| ''rezeġen'' "to become content"
|-
|-
! rowspan=5 | S
! rowspan=7 | S
! S s
! S s
| /s/
| /s/
Line 407: Line 167:
| /ʃ/
| /ʃ/
| ''śy'' "horse, brother"
| ''śy'' "horse, brother"
|-
! Ś' ś'
| /ʃ'/
| ''ś'yn'' "to do"
|-
|-
! Ś° ś°
! Ś° ś°
| /ʃʷ/
| /ʃʷ/
| ''ś°y-'' "you all (imperative plural marker)", ''ś°ece'' "black"
| ''ś°y-'' "you all (imperative plural marker)"
|-
! Ś°' ś°'
| /ʃ'ʷ/
| ''ś°'yc'e'' "black"
|-
|-
! Š š
! Š š
Line 445: Line 213:
| /χʷ/
| /χʷ/
| ''-x°y'' "male ___"
| ''-x°y'' "male ___"
|-
! colspan=2 | Y y
| /ə/
| ''zy'' "one"
|-
|-
! rowspan=5 | Z
! rowspan=5 | Z
Line 478: Line 250:


==Grammar==
==Grammar==
Laqi has a Subject-Object-Verb word order. Its morphosyntactic alignment is Ergative-Absolutive, meaning that the Subject of an intransitive verb is marked with an Absolutive case while the Subject of a transitive verb is marked with an Ergative case.


===Verbs===
===Verbs===


===Nouns===
''Main Article: [[{{PAGENAME}}/Verbs|Verbs]]''
 
Laqi verbs are the most highly-inflected part of speech in the language, receiving both prefixes and suffixes to describe things like subject/object agreement, the direction of action, tense and mood, intentionality, and even the English equivalent to conjunctions and adverbs.
 
These affixes bind to the verb according to a defined sequence according to their type:
 
{| class="wikitable" style="border: none;"
|-
! colspan=8 | Prefix Complex
| rowspan=2 style="text-align: center; font-size: 125%; width: 5em; border: none;" | '''+'''
! rowspan=2 | VERB STEM
| rowspan=2 style="text-align: center; font-size: 125%; width: 5em; border: none;" | '''+'''
! colspan=5 | Suffix Complex
|-
| {{color|green|Absolutive}}
| Directional
| Applicatives
| Cislocative
| {{color|red|Indirect Object}}
| {{color|blue|Ergative}}
| Causative
| Negation
| Tense
| Mood
| Negation
| Epistemic
| Conjunctive
|}
 
====Personal Agreement====


====Cases====
Laqi has two basic sets of markers to indicate personal agreement: Absolutive and Ergative-Oblique. Whether these endings mark the subject or the object depends on the greater context of the verb phrase. Person markers indicate three persons (1st, 2nd, 3rd), two numbers (singular, plural) as well as a reflexive.


{| class="wikitable" style="white-space: nowrap; text-align:center"
{| class="wikitable"
!
!
! colspan=2 | Indefinite
! style="font-variant: small-caps;" | {{color|green|{{altText|Abs|Absolutive}}}}
! colspan=2 | Definite
| rowspan=7 |
!
! style="font-variant: small-caps;" | {{altText|{{color|blue|Erg}}-{{color|red|Obj}}|Ergative-Oblique}}
|-
! 1s
| sy- ~
| s- ~
|-
|-
! style="font-variant: small-caps;" | {{altText|Abs|Absolutive}}
! 2s
| -
| uy- ~
| ''ŝ°yze''
| u- ~
| -r
| ''ŝ°yze'''r'''''
| "a/some woman"<br />"the woman"
|-
|-
! style="font-variant: small-caps;" | {{altText|Erg-Obj|Ergative-Oblique}}
! 3s
| -
| 0- ~
| ''ŝ°yze''
| i- ~
| -m
| ''ŝ°yze'''m'''''
| "a/some woman"<br />"the woman"
|-
|-
! style="font-variant: small-caps;" | {{altText|Inst-Dir|Instrumental-Directional}}
! 1p
| -ć'e
| ty- ~
| ''ŝ°yze'''ć'e'''''
| t- ~
 
| -mć'e
| ''ŝ°yze'''mć'e'''''
| "with a/some woman"<br />"with the woman"
|-
|-
! style="font-variant: small-caps;" | {{altText|Adv|Adverbial}}
! 2p
| colspan=2 | -u
| ś°y- ~
| colspan=2 | ''ŝ°yze'''u'''''
| ś°- ~
| "as a/the woman"
|-
|-
! style="font-variant: small-caps;" | {{altText|Adj|Adjectival}}
! 3p
| colspan=2 | _
| ~ -x
| colspan=2 | ''ŝ°yz'''_'''''
| a- ~
| "womanly"
|}
|}


Case markers affix to the very end of the noun stem, after all other modifying suffixes have already been attached.
Ergative-Oblique affixes (and all consonant-ending prefixes) may have an epenthetic vowel, ''e'', added to cushion them from forming consonant clusters that violate phonotactic constraints.


=====Absolutive=====
:e.g.
:: ''qy'''s'''fad'' "(s)he is like me" versus ''qy'''se'''pły'' "(s)he looks at me"


The '''Absolutive Case''' marks the subject of an intransitive verb or the direct object of a transitive verb.
=====Reflexive=====


======Subject of an Intransitive======
When two or more arguments represent the same person(s), reflexive prefixes are used instead, under the following circumstances:


:: '''''ć'aler''' iedźap'em k°'aġe'' "'''The boy''' went to the school."
* Indirect Object matches Absolutive: {{color|red|Indirect Object &#61; '''''ze'''-''}}
:: ''{{color|green|uy}}'''{{color|red|ze}}'''{{color|blue|s}}ġepły'' "I am making you look at yourself".
* Indirect Object matches Ergative: {{color|red|Indirect Object &#61; '''''zy'''-''}}
:: ''{{color|green|uy}}'''{{color|red|zy}}'''{{color|blue|s}}ġepły'' "I am making you look at myself".
* Ergative matches Absolutive: {{color|green|Absolutive &#61; '''''zy'''-''}}
:: '''''{{color|green|zy}}'''{{color|red|se}}{{color|blue|u}}ġepły'' "You are making yourself look at me".
* All three match: {{color|green|Absolutive &#61; '''''zy'''-''}}, {{color|red|Indirect Object &#61; '''''ze'''-''}}
:: '''''{{color|green|zy}}{{color|red|ze}}'''{{color|blue|u}}ġepły'' "You are making yourself look at yourself".


======Direct Object of a Transitive======
====Negation====


:: ''Pšylym '''syġ°enćedźeher''' ieġeqabze.'' "The slave cleans '''my trousers'''."
There are two methods available for negating a verb. One is with a prefix located immediately before the verb root, '''''my'''-'':


=====Ergative-Oblique=====
: ''Qyse'''my'''płyġe''. "(S)he did '''not''' look at me."


======Subject of a Transitive======
The second is with a suffix, located after tense and mood marking, ''-'''(e)p''''':


:: '''''Pšylym''' syġ°enćedźeher ieġeqabze.'' "'''The slave''' cleans my trousers."
: ''Qysepłyġe'''p'''''. "(S)he did '''not''' look at me."


======Indirect Object of an Intransitive======
====Valency Patterns====


======Possessive======
=====Stative=====


======Locative======
Laqi has a set of stative verbs, which indicate an unchanging condition for the subject. These stative verbs are formed out of augmented [[#Positional Prefixes|positional prefix]].


:: ''ć'aler '''iedźap'em''' k°'aġe'' "The boy went '''to the school'''."
The subject is in the ''Absolutive Case'' and marked on the verb with ''Absolutive'' affixes, since the subject is taking no action and receives the verb's description.
:: '''Ć'ale '''mezym''' šy'.''' "A boy is '''in the woods'''."


=====Instrumental-Directional=====
: '''''Cy'''šys.'' "I am sitting."


======Instrumental======
A noun can also be reinterpreted as a stative verb in order to form basic predicative statements.


======Direction Towards/From======
: ''Dzeł'y'''h'''!'' "They are warriors!"


=====Adverbial=====
=====Monovalent=====


======Profession or Role======
Monovalent verbs take a single argument, the subject who is performing an action.


======Topic======
The subject is in the ''Absolutive Case'', since the subject's action affects itself. As a quirk in the language, the verb marks agreement in the Absolutive slot but with what appears to be a variant of the Ergative affixes.


======Resulting State======
: ''Se '''se'''śhe.'' "I eat."


=====Adjectival=====
3rd is uniquely marked with a ''ma-'' prefix (if the verb has no other prefixes), and the normal Absolutive ''-h'' suffix for the 3rd Plural


The '''Adjectival Case''' marks when a noun is being used as an adjective to directly modify the following noun.
: ''Tyiuynamć'e '''ma'''śhe'''h'''!'' "'''They''' eat in our home!"


:: ''ġ°yć'y'' "iron" &rarr; '''''ġ°yć'''' wate'' "'''iron''' hammer"
====Infinitive/Gerund====


======Formation======
====Imperative====


The Adjectival Case is notable in that it is marked not with an ending, but with a reduction of the noun stem. For multi-syllabic nouns, the end vowel is clipped:
====Tense====


:: ''plyžy'' "red" {{altText|(abs)|Absolutive}} &rarr; ''plyž'' "red" {{altText|(adj)|Adjectival}}
{| class=wikitable
|-
! Time
! Suffix
! Example
|-
| Distant Past
| -ġaġe
| style="text-align:right" | ''g°yšy'e sthy'''ġaġe'''''<br />s-thy'''-ġaġe'''<br />"I had been writing a letter"
|-
! Simple Past
| -ġe
| style="text-align:right" | ''g°yšy'e sthy'''ġe'''''<br />s-thy'''-ġe'''<br />"I wrote a letter"
|-
| Near Past
| -štyġe
| style="text-align:right" | ''g°yšy'e sthy'''štyġe'''''<br />s-thy'''-štyġe'''<br />"I just wrote a letter"
|-
! Present
| -
| style="text-align:right" | ''g°yšy'e sthy''<br />s-thy'''-'''<br />"I am writing a letter"
|-
! Future
| -št
| style="text-align:right" | ''g°yšy'e sthy'''št'''''<br />s-thy'''-št'''<br />"I will write a letter"
|}


For mono-syllabic nouns, the end vowel is retained; for these nouns, the Adjectival has the same form as the indefinite Absolutive or Ergative-Oblique:
===Nouns===


:: ''ł'y'' "man" {{altText|(abs)|Absolutive}} &rarr; ''ł'y'' "manly" {{altText|(adj)|Adjectival}}
''Main Article: [[{{PAGENAME}}/Nouns|Nouns]]''


This absence of clipping extends to compounds in which a monosyllabic noun comes last:
{| class="wikitable" style="white-space: nowrap; text-align:center"
!
! colspan=2 | Singular
! colspan=2 | Plural
|-
! style="font-variant: small-caps;" |
{{altText|Abs|Absolutive}}
| -
| ''ŝ°yze''
| -he
| ''ŝ°yze'''he'''''
|-
! style="font-variant: small-caps;" |
{{altText|Abs|Absolutive}}
| -r
| ''ŝ°yze'''r'''''
| -her
| ''ŝ°yze'''her'''''
|-
! style="font-variant: small-caps;" | {{altText|Erg-Obj|Ergative-Oblique}}
| -m
| ''ŝ°yze'''m'''''
| -hem
| ''ŝ°yze'''hem'''''
|-
! style="font-variant: small-caps;" | {{altText|Inst-Dir|Instrumental-Directional}}
| -(m)ć'e
| ''ŝ°yze'''(m)ć'e'''''


:: ''dzeł'y'' "fighter" {{altText|(abs)|Absolutive}} [< ''dze'' "army" + ''ł'y'' "man"] &rarr; ''dzeł'y'' "fighter" {{altText|(adj)|Adjectival}}
| -he(m)ć'e
| ''ŝ°yze'''he(m)ć'e'''''
|-
! style="font-variant: small-caps;" | {{altText|Adv|Adverbial}}
|  -u
| ''ŝ°yze'''u'''''
|  -heu
| ''ŝ°yze'''heu'''''
|-
! style="font-variant: small-caps;" | {{altText|Adj|Adjectival}}
| _
| ''ŝ°yz'''_'''''
|}


===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
Line 643: Line 509:


====Demonstrative Pronouns====
====Demonstrative Pronouns====
====Possessive Pronouns====
Possession can be marked as a prefix on the possessed noun. Red Laqi distinguishes according to ''alienation''. An inalienated noun is one which cannot exist without belonging to someone, e.g. a hand is ''someone's'' hand, a mother is ''someone's'' mother, by default.
=====Inalienable Possessive=====
Inalienable possessive prefixes have two forms, for whether or not the ajoined word begins with a vowel or a consonant.
{| class="wikitable" style="white-space: nowrap;"
!
! Prefix
! Meaning
|-
! 1s
| s- / sy-
| "my"
|-
! 2s
| w- / wy-
| "your (s)"
|-
! 3s
| - / y-
| "his, her, its"
|-
! 1p
| t- / te-
| "our"
|-
! 2p
| ś°- / ś°e-
| "your (pl)"
|-
! 3p
| - / -a-
| "their"
|}
=====Alienable Possessive=====
{| class="wikitable" style="white-space: nowrap;"
!
! Prefix
! Meaning
|-
! 1s
| syi-
| "my"
|-
! 2s
| wyi-
| "your (s)"
|-
! 3s
| iyi-
| "his, her, its"
|-
! 1p
| tyi-
| "our"
|-
! 2p
| ś°yi-
| "your (pl)"
|-
! 3p
| iai-
| "their"
|}


====Predicate Pronouns====
====Predicate Pronouns====


==Lexicon==
==Lexicon==
''Main Article: [[{{PAGENAME}}/Lexicon|Lexicon]]''


[[Category:Republic of Inner Benacia]]
[[Category:Republic of Inner Benacia]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Laqs]]

Latest revision as of 17:52, 25 February 2021

The Red Laqi language (RL. Plyžlaqebze) is the variety of Laqi speech most closely associated with the Red Laqs. Red Laqs originate from the Laqi Homeland in the highlands of Brookshire, but split off to migrate west as Ashkenatza fell to ruin.

Phonology

Main Article: Phonology

Character Phoneme Examples
A a /aː/ aban "hole"
B b /b/ be "a lot (of)"
C C c /t͡s/ cage "rib", cy "body hair"
C° c° /t͡sʷ/ c°y "ox"
C' c' /t͡s'/ c'yfy "person"
Ć ć /t͡ʃ/ ćefy "cheerful, pleased"
Ć' ć' /t͡ʃ'/ ć'ymafe "winter", ćase "late", ćyg°e "land"
Ĉ ĉ /t͡ʂ/ ĉy'e "cold"
Ĉ' ĉ' /t͡ʂ'/ ĉyfe "debt"
D D d /d/ dedźe "bitter"
Dz dz /d͡z/ dzeue "bag", dze "combat, war"
Dz° dz° /d͡zʷ/ ḥandz°e "rick, 1.208 m3"
Dź dź /d͡ʒ/ dźane "dress, robe, shirt", łamydź "bridge"
E e /a/ 'eneẑ, neneẑ "grandmother"
F f /f/ fyžy "white"
G G g /ɣ/ gyć'yġ "laundry", ge "gonad"
G° g° /gʷ/ g°y "heart"
Ġ ġ /ʁ/ ġathe "spring", -ġe "-ity, -ness"
Ġ° ġ° /ʁʷ/ ġ°yneġ°y "neighbour"
H H h /x/ -he "-s (plural marker)"
Ḥ ḥ /ħ/ ḥe "dog"
I i /j/ iai "theirs", iat'e "dirt"
K K° k° /kʷ/ k°y "cart"
K°' k°' /kʷ'/ k°'akle "strong", -k°'e "-er"
L L l /ɮ/ ly "meat"
Ł ł /ɬ/ łaše "weak"
Ł' ł' /ɬ'/ ł'y "man"
M m /m/ maze "moon", mepy "sheep"
N n /n/ ne "eye", ny "mother"
P P p /p/ plyžy "red" paie "for, in order to"
P' p' /p'/ p'e "bed"
P°' /pʷ'/ p°'yr "apprentice"
Q Q q /q/ qek°'eḥyn "to stroll, roam" maq "voice"
Q° q° /qʷ/ q°yŝe "mountain", q°e "-son (patronymic)"
R r /r/ rezeġen "to become content"
S S s /s/ se "I, me", seśh°e "sabre"
Ś ś /ʃ/ śy "horse, brother"
Ś' ś' /ʃ'/ ś'yn "to do"
Ś° ś° /ʃʷ/ ś°y- "you all (imperative plural marker)"
Ś°' ś°' /ʃ'ʷ/ ś°'yc'e "black"
Š š /ɕ/ šy "three"
Ŝ ŝ /ʂ/ ŝe "hundred", ŝabe "soft, meek"
T T t /t/ te "we"
T' t' /t'/ nyt'e "yes"
T°' t°' /tʷ'/ t°'yrys "old"
U u /w/ uyben "to tamp, make smooth"
X X x /χ/ xyien "to move"
X° x° /χʷ/ -x°y "male ___"
Y y /ə/ zy "one"
Z Z z /z/ -bze "female ___, -speech"
Ź ź /ʒ/ bźyḥe "autumn"
Ź° ź° /ʒʷ/ ź°aġ°e "star"
Ž ž /ʑ/ žaua "shadow"
Ẑ ẑ /ʐ/ ẑy "old", ẑaẑe "slow"
' ' /ʔ/ 'e "hand"
'° /ʔʷ/ '°yćen "to meet"

Grammar

Laqi has a Subject-Object-Verb word order. Its morphosyntactic alignment is Ergative-Absolutive, meaning that the Subject of an intransitive verb is marked with an Absolutive case while the Subject of a transitive verb is marked with an Ergative case.

Verbs

Main Article: Verbs

Laqi verbs are the most highly-inflected part of speech in the language, receiving both prefixes and suffixes to describe things like subject/object agreement, the direction of action, tense and mood, intentionality, and even the English equivalent to conjunctions and adverbs.

These affixes bind to the verb according to a defined sequence according to their type:

Prefix Complex + VERB STEM + Suffix Complex
Absolutive Directional Applicatives Cislocative Indirect Object Ergative Causative Negation Tense Mood Negation Epistemic Conjunctive

Personal Agreement

Laqi has two basic sets of markers to indicate personal agreement: Absolutive and Ergative-Oblique. Whether these endings mark the subject or the object depends on the greater context of the verb phrase. Person markers indicate three persons (1st, 2nd, 3rd), two numbers (singular, plural) as well as a reflexive.

Abs Erg-Obj
1s sy- ~ s- ~
2s uy- ~ u- ~
3s 0- ~ i- ~
1p ty- ~ t- ~
2p ś°y- ~ ś°- ~
3p ~ -x a- ~

Ergative-Oblique affixes (and all consonant-ending prefixes) may have an epenthetic vowel, e, added to cushion them from forming consonant clusters that violate phonotactic constraints.

e.g.
qysfad "(s)he is like me" versus qysepły "(s)he looks at me"
Reflexive

When two or more arguments represent the same person(s), reflexive prefixes are used instead, under the following circumstances:

  • Indirect Object matches Absolutive: Indirect Object = ze-
uyzesġepły "I am making you look at yourself".
  • Indirect Object matches Ergative: Indirect Object = zy-
uyzysġepły "I am making you look at myself".
  • Ergative matches Absolutive: Absolutive = zy-
zyseuġepły "You are making yourself look at me".
  • All three match: Absolutive = zy-, Indirect Object = ze-
zyzeuġepły "You are making yourself look at yourself".

Negation

There are two methods available for negating a verb. One is with a prefix located immediately before the verb root, my-:

Qysemypłyġe. "(S)he did not look at me."

The second is with a suffix, located after tense and mood marking, -(e)p:

Qysepłyġep. "(S)he did not look at me."

Valency Patterns

Stative

Laqi has a set of stative verbs, which indicate an unchanging condition for the subject. These stative verbs are formed out of augmented positional prefix.

The subject is in the Absolutive Case and marked on the verb with Absolutive affixes, since the subject is taking no action and receives the verb's description.

Cyšys. "I am sitting."

A noun can also be reinterpreted as a stative verb in order to form basic predicative statements.

Dzeł'yh! "They are warriors!"
Monovalent

Monovalent verbs take a single argument, the subject who is performing an action.

The subject is in the Absolutive Case, since the subject's action affects itself. As a quirk in the language, the verb marks agreement in the Absolutive slot but with what appears to be a variant of the Ergative affixes.

Se seśhe. "I eat."

3rd is uniquely marked with a ma- prefix (if the verb has no other prefixes), and the normal Absolutive -h suffix for the 3rd Plural

Tyiuynamć'e maśheh! "They eat in our home!"

Infinitive/Gerund

Imperative

Tense

Time Suffix Example
Distant Past -ġaġe g°yšy'e sthyġaġe
s-thy-ġaġe
"I had been writing a letter"
Simple Past -ġe g°yšy'e sthyġe
s-thy-ġe
"I wrote a letter"
Near Past -štyġe g°yšy'e sthyštyġe
s-thy-štyġe
"I just wrote a letter"
Present - g°yšy'e sthy
s-thy-
"I am writing a letter"
Future -št g°yšy'e sthyšt
s-thy-št
"I will write a letter"

Nouns

Main Article: Nouns

Singular Plural

Abs

- ŝ°yze -he ŝ°yzehe

Abs

-r ŝ°yzer -her ŝ°yzeher
Erg-Obj -m ŝ°yzem -hem ŝ°yzehem
Inst-Dir -(m)ć'e ŝ°yze(m)ć'e -he(m)ć'e ŝ°yzehe(m)ć'e
Adv -u ŝ°yzeu -heu ŝ°yzeheu
Adj _ ŝ°yz_

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns can be optional, due subject and object markings on finite verbs. On the other hand, their inclusion in sentences add redundancy and can be used for emphasis. The category of "personal" covers only First and Second Person as well as a Reflexive.

First Second Reflexive
Singular Abs se ue iež
Erg-Obj se ue iež
Inst-Dir serć'e uerć'e iežć'e
Adv sereu uereu iežeu
Plural Abs te ś°e iežher
Erg-Obj te ś°e iežhem
Inst-Dir terć'e ś°erć'e iežhamć'e
Adv tereu ś°ereu iežhereu

Demonstrative Pronouns

Predicate Pronouns

Lexicon

Main Article: Lexicon

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